The Level of Experienced Omani Teachers’ Reflective Judgment of Scientific Knowledge and the Mechanisms of Justifying this Knowledge
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Abstract
This study aimed at exploring the level of reflective judgment of scientific knowledge among 23 male and female experienced science teachers and the mechanisms those teachers use to justify this knowledge. Employing a mixed-method approach, the data were collected through semi-structured individual interviews. The findings indicate that most science teachers in the Sultanate of Oman are in a semi-reflective judgment level, with a relative increase in the nature of knowledge and a decrease in the level of knowledge justification. The study also demonstrates that only around 20% of science teachers have a variety of knowledge justification mechanisms, represented by the ability to search and evaluate multiple information sources. The justification mechanisms include both those that are dependent on external authority sources, such as, teachers’ scientific specializations, government decisions, and experts’ opinions and others that are related to the teacher himself/herself through his/her practices, observations and personal experiences. The study has provided several recommendations to reinforce the reflective judgment among science teachers.
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Keywords
Reflective JudgmentNature of knowledgeJustification MechanismsExperienced Science Teachers
References
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الزدجالي، أحلام. (2006). معتقدات معلمي العلوم عن التدريس في ضوء النظرية البنائية وعلاقتها بالممارسة الصفي، (رسالة ماجستير غير منشورة). مسقط: جامعة السلطان قابوس.
الشايع، فهد والقادري، سليمان. (2012). التصورات الإبستمولوجية لتعلم وتعليم المفاهيم الفيزيائية لدى أعضاء هيئة التدريس بأقسام الفيزياء في بعض الجامعات السعودية والأردنية. مجلة جامعة الملك سعود، العلوم التربوية والدراسات الإسلامية، 24(1)، 285-310.
محمد، سحر هاشم. (2019). الحكم التأملي لدى طلبة الجامعة، مجلة البحوث التربوية والنفسية. جامعة بغداد، مركز البحوث التربوية والنفسية، 60(16)، 157-189.
وزارة التربية والتعليم. (2014). المركز التخصصي للتدريب المهني للمعلمين، بيانات عن المركز، مسقط، سلطنة عمان: وزارة التربية والتعليم.
وزارة التربية والتعليم، والبنك الدولي. (2012). التعليم في سلطنة عُمان، المضي قدمًا في تحقيق الجودة: دراسة مشتركة بين وزارة التربية والتعليم والبنك الدولي. مسقط، سلطنة عمان: وزارة التربية والتعليم.
وزارة التعليم العالي. (2016). توجهات أرباب العمل في توظيف الخريجين في القطاع الخاص. مسقط، سلطنة عمان: وزارة التعليم العالي.
Abd-El-Khalick, F. (2006). Pre-service and experienced biology teachers’ global and specific subject matter structures: Implications for conceptions of pedagogical content knowledge. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 2 (1), 1–29.
Ambusaidi, A.K. & Al-Balushi, S.M. (2012). A longitudinal study to identify prospective science teachers’ beliefs about science teaching using the draw-a-science-teacher-test checklist. International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 7 (2), 291-311.
Al-Hajry, H. (2006). The level of science teachers' understanding of the nature of science and its relationship to their classroom practices. (Unpublished MA thesis). Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat.
Al-Ostaz, M. (2011). The level of meditative thinking ability of science teachers in the basic stage in Gaza. Journal of Al-Azhar University in Gaza, Humanities Series, 1b (13), 1329-1370.
Al Shaya, F. & Alqadere, S. (2012). Epistemological perceptions of learning and teaching physics concepts amongst physics faculty members at some Saudi and Jordanian universities. Journal of King Saud University, Educational Sciences and Islamic Studies 42 (1), 01-482.
Al-Zadjali, A. (2006). Science teachers' beliefs about teaching in the light of structural theory and its relationship to classroom practice. (Unpublished MA thesis). Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat.
Al-Balushi, S. M., Ambusaidi, A. K., Al-Balushi, K. A., Al-Hajri, F. H., & Al-Sinani, M. S. (2020). Student-centred and teacher-centred science classrooms as visualized by science teachers and their supervisors. Teaching and Teacher Education, 89.
Baxter Magolda, M. B. (2007). Self‐authorship: The foundation for twenty‐first‐century education. New directions for teaching and learning, 2007(109), 69-83.
Bendixen, L. D., & Klimow, N. (2019). Participatory Concept Mapping as an Integration Tool in Mixed Methods Research: Exploring Pre-service Teachers’ Epistemic Cognition and Teaching Orientation. International Journal of Educational Methodology, 5(2), 247–264.
Brandmo, C., & Bråten, I. (2018). Investigating relations between beliefs about justification for knowing, interest, and knowledge across two socio-scientific topics. Learning and Individual Differences, 62, 89–97.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 77–101.
Cavanagh, N. M. (2015). Reflective judgment: Can problem-based learning approach make a difference? (Order No. 3722351). Available at ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (1719533097). Retrieved from https://ezproxysrv.squ.edu.om:2123/docview/1719533097?accountid=27575.
Chan, K. W. (2008). Epistemological beliefs, learning, and teaching: The Hong Kong cultural context. In Khine, M. (Eds.), Knowing, knowledge and beliefs (pp. 257-272). Springer, Dordrecht.
Ferguson, L. E., Bråten, I., Strømso, H. I., & Anmarkrud, O. (2013). Epistemic beliefs and comprehension in the context of reading multiple documents: Examining the role of conflict. International Journal of Educational Research, 62, 100-114.
Feucht, F. C., & Bendixen, L. D. (2010). Exploring similarities and differences in personal epistemologies of U.S. and German elementary school teachers. Cognition and Instruction, 28(1), 39–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/07370000903430558.
Feucht, F. C., Lunn Brownlee, J., & Schraw, G. (2017). Moving beyond Reflection: Reflexivity and Epistemic Cognition in Teaching and Teacher Education. Educational Psychologist, 52(4), 234–241.
Fives, H., & Buehl, M. M. (2010). Teachers’ articulation of beliefs about teaching knowledge: Conceptualizing a belief framework. In L. D. Bendixen & F. C. Feucht (Eds.), Personal epistemology in the classroom: Theory, research, and implications for practice (pp. 470–515).Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Haerle, F. C., & Bendixen, L. D. (2008). Personal epistemology in elementary classrooms: A conceptual comparison of Germany and the United States and a guide for future cross-cultural research. In M. S. Khine (Ed.), Knowing, knowledge and beliefs: Epistemological studies across diverse cultures (p. 151–176). Springer Science + Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6596-5_7.
Hofer, B. K., & Bendixen, L. D. (2012). Personal epistemology: Theory, research, and future directions. APA educational psychology handbook, 1, 227-256.
Kang, N.-H. (2008). Learning to teach science: Personal epistemologies, teaching goals, and practices of teaching. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24 (2), 478–498.
Karışan, D.; Tüzün, O.; & Zeidler, D. (2018). Pre-service teachers’ reflective judgment skills in the context of socio-scientific issues based inquiry laboratory course. (2018). Turkish Journal of Education, 7(2), 99–116.
King, P.M. & Kitchener, K.S. (1994). Developing reflective judgment: Understanding and promoting intellectual growth and critical thinking in adolescents and adults. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
———. (2002). The reflective judgment model: Twenty years of research on epistemic cognition. In B. K. Hofer & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.), Personal epistemology: The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and knowing (pp. 37–61).
———. (2004). Reflective judgment: Theory and research on the development of epistemic assumptions through adulthood. Educational Psychologist, 39, 5-18.
Kitchener, K. S., & King, P. M. (1981). Reflective judgment: Concepts of justification and their relationship to age and education. Journal of applied developmental psychology, 2(2), 89-116.
Ku, M. (2015). Social networks and human agency in knowledge sharing and creation: Lessons from a public research university (Order No. 3738484). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (1747441983). Retrieved from https://ezproxysrv.squ.edu.om:2123/docview/1747441983?accountid=27575
Lunn Brownlee, J., Ferguson, L. E., & Ryan, M. (2017). Changing Teachers’ Epistemic Cognition: A New Conceptual Framework for Epistemic Reflexivity. Educational Psychologist, 52(4), 242–252. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2017.1333430.
Martin, M., Mullis, I., Foy, P., & Hooper, M. (2016). TIMSS 2015 international results in science. Retrieved In: October 22 2019, from: http://timssandpirls.bc.edu/pirls2016/international-results.
Miller, R. C. (2012). Comparing student stage of reflective judgment between junior and senior academic standing, West Virginia University, West Virginia.
Ministry of Education and the World Bank (2012). Education in the Sultanate of Oman, Moving Forward to Quality: A Joint Study between the Ministry of Education and the World Bank. Ministry of Education, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman.
Ministry of Higher Education (2016). Attitudes of employers to employ graduates in the private sector. Ministry of Higher Education, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman.
Mohamed, S. (2019). Reflective Judgment for University Students. Journal of Educational and Psychological Research: University of Baghdad - Center for Educational and Psychological Research, 60 (16), 157-189.
Muis, K.R., Duffy, M.C., Trevors, G., Ranellucci, J., & Foy, M.J. (2014). What were They Thinking? Using Cognitive Interviewing to Examine the Validity of Self-Reported Epistemic Beliefs.
Nonaka, I. (1994). A dynamic theory of organizational knowledge creation. Organization Science, 5(1), 14–37.
Nowell, L. S., Norris, J. M., White, D. E., & Moules, N. J. (2017). Thematic analysis: Striving to meet the trustworthiness criteria. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 16(1), 1609406917733847.
Owen, J. (2005). Counselors' reflective judgment: An examination of clinical judgment strategies (Order No. 3195569). Available from ProQuest Central; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (304993625). Retrieved from https://ezproxysrv.squ.edu.om:2123/docview/304993625?accountid=27575.
Perry, W. G., Jr. (1998). Forms of intelle ctual and ethical development in the college years: A scheme. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass (Originally published in 1970. New York: Holt, Renehart & Winston.
Ponzi, L.J.(2003). The Evolution & Intellectual Development of Knowledge Management. (Unpublished Doctor Dissertation), University of Kansas, Lawrence, USA.
Sandoval, W., Greene, J., & Bråten, I. (2016). Understanding and promoting thinking about knowledge: Origins, issues, and future directions of research on epistemic cognition. Review of Research in Education, (40), 457–496.
Schraw, G., & Olafson, L. (2002). Teachers’ epistemological world views and educational practices. Issues in Education: Contributions from Educational Psychology, 8, 99–148.
Sing, C. (2013). Teachers’ Professional Development in a Computer-supported collaborative learning environment: Descriptive and Interpretive Enquiry. Unpublished Doctor Dissertation. University of Leicester. UMI Number: U 601295.
Strauss, A. L., & Corbin, J. M. (1998). Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Tirri,K., Husu, J., & Kansanen, P. (1999). The epistemological stance between the knower and the known. Teacheing and Teacher Education, 15(8), 911-922.
Valk, J. (2017). Fulfilling employer needs by incorporating liberal arts content into technical program curricula: A case study (Order No. 10928827). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (2093781079). Retrieved from https://ezproxysrv.squ.edu.om:2123/docview/2093781079?accountid=27575.
von Krogh, G. & Nonaka, I. (2000). Enabling knowledge creation: How to unlock the mystery of tacit knowledge and release the power of innovation. New York: Oxford University Press.
Wood, P. (1994). A Secondary Analysis of Claims Regarding the Reflective Judgment Interview: Internal Consistency, Sequentially and Intra-Individual Differences in Ill-Structured Problem Solving. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 374 156).
Young, M. (2005). Personal epistemological beliefs and their relationship to learning. Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education, 6, 63–76.
Zeidler, D. L., Sadler, T. D., Applebaum, S., & Callahan, B. E. (2009). Advancing reflective judgment through socioscientific issues. Journal of Research in Science Teaching: The Official Journal of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, 46(1), 74-101.
الحجري، حسن. (2006). مستوى فهم معلمي العلوم لطبيعة العلم وعلاقته بممارساتهم الصفية، (رسالة ماجستير غير منشورة). مسقط: جامعة السلطان قابوس.
الزدجالي، أحلام. (2006). معتقدات معلمي العلوم عن التدريس في ضوء النظرية البنائية وعلاقتها بالممارسة الصفي، (رسالة ماجستير غير منشورة). مسقط: جامعة السلطان قابوس.
الشايع، فهد والقادري، سليمان. (2012). التصورات الإبستمولوجية لتعلم وتعليم المفاهيم الفيزيائية لدى أعضاء هيئة التدريس بأقسام الفيزياء في بعض الجامعات السعودية والأردنية. مجلة جامعة الملك سعود، العلوم التربوية والدراسات الإسلامية، 24(1)، 285-310.
محمد، سحر هاشم. (2019). الحكم التأملي لدى طلبة الجامعة، مجلة البحوث التربوية والنفسية. جامعة بغداد، مركز البحوث التربوية والنفسية، 60(16)، 157-189.
وزارة التربية والتعليم. (2014). المركز التخصصي للتدريب المهني للمعلمين، بيانات عن المركز، مسقط، سلطنة عمان: وزارة التربية والتعليم.
وزارة التربية والتعليم، والبنك الدولي. (2012). التعليم في سلطنة عُمان، المضي قدمًا في تحقيق الجودة: دراسة مشتركة بين وزارة التربية والتعليم والبنك الدولي. مسقط، سلطنة عمان: وزارة التربية والتعليم.
وزارة التعليم العالي. (2016). توجهات أرباب العمل في توظيف الخريجين في القطاع الخاص. مسقط، سلطنة عمان: وزارة التعليم العالي.
Abd-El-Khalick, F. (2006). Pre-service and experienced biology teachers’ global and specific subject matter structures: Implications for conceptions of pedagogical content knowledge. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 2 (1), 1–29.
Ambusaidi, A.K. & Al-Balushi, S.M. (2012). A longitudinal study to identify prospective science teachers’ beliefs about science teaching using the draw-a-science-teacher-test checklist. International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 7 (2), 291-311.
Al-Hajry, H. (2006). The level of science teachers' understanding of the nature of science and its relationship to their classroom practices. (Unpublished MA thesis). Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat.
Al-Ostaz, M. (2011). The level of meditative thinking ability of science teachers in the basic stage in Gaza. Journal of Al-Azhar University in Gaza, Humanities Series, 1b (13), 1329-1370.
Al Shaya, F. & Alqadere, S. (2012). Epistemological perceptions of learning and teaching physics concepts amongst physics faculty members at some Saudi and Jordanian universities. Journal of King Saud University, Educational Sciences and Islamic Studies 42 (1), 01-482.
Al-Zadjali, A. (2006). Science teachers' beliefs about teaching in the light of structural theory and its relationship to classroom practice. (Unpublished MA thesis). Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat.
Al-Balushi, S. M., Ambusaidi, A. K., Al-Balushi, K. A., Al-Hajri, F. H., & Al-Sinani, M. S. (2020). Student-centred and teacher-centred science classrooms as visualized by science teachers and their supervisors. Teaching and Teacher Education, 89.
Baxter Magolda, M. B. (2007). Self‐authorship: The foundation for twenty‐first‐century education. New directions for teaching and learning, 2007(109), 69-83.
Bendixen, L. D., & Klimow, N. (2019). Participatory Concept Mapping as an Integration Tool in Mixed Methods Research: Exploring Pre-service Teachers’ Epistemic Cognition and Teaching Orientation. International Journal of Educational Methodology, 5(2), 247–264.
Brandmo, C., & Bråten, I. (2018). Investigating relations between beliefs about justification for knowing, interest, and knowledge across two socio-scientific topics. Learning and Individual Differences, 62, 89–97.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 77–101.
Cavanagh, N. M. (2015). Reflective judgment: Can problem-based learning approach make a difference? (Order No. 3722351). Available at ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (1719533097). Retrieved from https://ezproxysrv.squ.edu.om:2123/docview/1719533097?accountid=27575.
Chan, K. W. (2008). Epistemological beliefs, learning, and teaching: The Hong Kong cultural context. In Khine, M. (Eds.), Knowing, knowledge and beliefs (pp. 257-272). Springer, Dordrecht.
Ferguson, L. E., Bråten, I., Strømso, H. I., & Anmarkrud, O. (2013). Epistemic beliefs and comprehension in the context of reading multiple documents: Examining the role of conflict. International Journal of Educational Research, 62, 100-114.
Feucht, F. C., & Bendixen, L. D. (2010). Exploring similarities and differences in personal epistemologies of U.S. and German elementary school teachers. Cognition and Instruction, 28(1), 39–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/07370000903430558.
Feucht, F. C., Lunn Brownlee, J., & Schraw, G. (2017). Moving beyond Reflection: Reflexivity and Epistemic Cognition in Teaching and Teacher Education. Educational Psychologist, 52(4), 234–241.
Fives, H., & Buehl, M. M. (2010). Teachers’ articulation of beliefs about teaching knowledge: Conceptualizing a belief framework. In L. D. Bendixen & F. C. Feucht (Eds.), Personal epistemology in the classroom: Theory, research, and implications for practice (pp. 470–515).Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Haerle, F. C., & Bendixen, L. D. (2008). Personal epistemology in elementary classrooms: A conceptual comparison of Germany and the United States and a guide for future cross-cultural research. In M. S. Khine (Ed.), Knowing, knowledge and beliefs: Epistemological studies across diverse cultures (p. 151–176). Springer Science + Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6596-5_7.
Hofer, B. K., & Bendixen, L. D. (2012). Personal epistemology: Theory, research, and future directions. APA educational psychology handbook, 1, 227-256.
Kang, N.-H. (2008). Learning to teach science: Personal epistemologies, teaching goals, and practices of teaching. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24 (2), 478–498.
Karışan, D.; Tüzün, O.; & Zeidler, D. (2018). Pre-service teachers’ reflective judgment skills in the context of socio-scientific issues based inquiry laboratory course. (2018). Turkish Journal of Education, 7(2), 99–116.
King, P.M. & Kitchener, K.S. (1994). Developing reflective judgment: Understanding and promoting intellectual growth and critical thinking in adolescents and adults. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
———. (2002). The reflective judgment model: Twenty years of research on epistemic cognition. In B. K. Hofer & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.), Personal epistemology: The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and knowing (pp. 37–61).
———. (2004). Reflective judgment: Theory and research on the development of epistemic assumptions through adulthood. Educational Psychologist, 39, 5-18.
Kitchener, K. S., & King, P. M. (1981). Reflective judgment: Concepts of justification and their relationship to age and education. Journal of applied developmental psychology, 2(2), 89-116.
Ku, M. (2015). Social networks and human agency in knowledge sharing and creation: Lessons from a public research university (Order No. 3738484). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (1747441983). Retrieved from https://ezproxysrv.squ.edu.om:2123/docview/1747441983?accountid=27575
Lunn Brownlee, J., Ferguson, L. E., & Ryan, M. (2017). Changing Teachers’ Epistemic Cognition: A New Conceptual Framework for Epistemic Reflexivity. Educational Psychologist, 52(4), 242–252. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2017.1333430.
Martin, M., Mullis, I., Foy, P., & Hooper, M. (2016). TIMSS 2015 international results in science. Retrieved In: October 22 2019, from: http://timssandpirls.bc.edu/pirls2016/international-results.
Miller, R. C. (2012). Comparing student stage of reflective judgment between junior and senior academic standing, West Virginia University, West Virginia.
Ministry of Education and the World Bank (2012). Education in the Sultanate of Oman, Moving Forward to Quality: A Joint Study between the Ministry of Education and the World Bank. Ministry of Education, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman.
Ministry of Higher Education (2016). Attitudes of employers to employ graduates in the private sector. Ministry of Higher Education, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman.
Mohamed, S. (2019). Reflective Judgment for University Students. Journal of Educational and Psychological Research: University of Baghdad - Center for Educational and Psychological Research, 60 (16), 157-189.
Muis, K.R., Duffy, M.C., Trevors, G., Ranellucci, J., & Foy, M.J. (2014). What were They Thinking? Using Cognitive Interviewing to Examine the Validity of Self-Reported Epistemic Beliefs.
Nonaka, I. (1994). A dynamic theory of organizational knowledge creation. Organization Science, 5(1), 14–37.
Nowell, L. S., Norris, J. M., White, D. E., & Moules, N. J. (2017). Thematic analysis: Striving to meet the trustworthiness criteria. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 16(1), 1609406917733847.
Owen, J. (2005). Counselors' reflective judgment: An examination of clinical judgment strategies (Order No. 3195569). Available from ProQuest Central; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (304993625). Retrieved from https://ezproxysrv.squ.edu.om:2123/docview/304993625?accountid=27575.
Perry, W. G., Jr. (1998). Forms of intelle ctual and ethical development in the college years: A scheme. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass (Originally published in 1970. New York: Holt, Renehart & Winston.
Ponzi, L.J.(2003). The Evolution & Intellectual Development of Knowledge Management. (Unpublished Doctor Dissertation), University of Kansas, Lawrence, USA.
Sandoval, W., Greene, J., & Bråten, I. (2016). Understanding and promoting thinking about knowledge: Origins, issues, and future directions of research on epistemic cognition. Review of Research in Education, (40), 457–496.
Schraw, G., & Olafson, L. (2002). Teachers’ epistemological world views and educational practices. Issues in Education: Contributions from Educational Psychology, 8, 99–148.
Sing, C. (2013). Teachers’ Professional Development in a Computer-supported collaborative learning environment: Descriptive and Interpretive Enquiry. Unpublished Doctor Dissertation. University of Leicester. UMI Number: U 601295.
Strauss, A. L., & Corbin, J. M. (1998). Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Tirri,K., Husu, J., & Kansanen, P. (1999). The epistemological stance between the knower and the known. Teacheing and Teacher Education, 15(8), 911-922.
Valk, J. (2017). Fulfilling employer needs by incorporating liberal arts content into technical program curricula: A case study (Order No. 10928827). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (2093781079). Retrieved from https://ezproxysrv.squ.edu.om:2123/docview/2093781079?accountid=27575.
von Krogh, G. & Nonaka, I. (2000). Enabling knowledge creation: How to unlock the mystery of tacit knowledge and release the power of innovation. New York: Oxford University Press.
Wood, P. (1994). A Secondary Analysis of Claims Regarding the Reflective Judgment Interview: Internal Consistency, Sequentially and Intra-Individual Differences in Ill-Structured Problem Solving. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 374 156).
Young, M. (2005). Personal epistemological beliefs and their relationship to learning. Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education, 6, 63–76.
Zeidler, D. L., Sadler, T. D., Applebaum, S., & Callahan, B. E. (2009). Advancing reflective judgment through socioscientific issues. Journal of Research in Science Teaching: The Official Journal of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, 46(1), 74-101.
How to Cite
Al-Hajri, Fatema Hamdan, and Abdullah Khamis Ambusaidi. 2021. “The Level of Experienced Omani Teachers’ Reflective Judgment of Scientific Knowledge and the Mechanisms of Justifying This Knowledge”. Journal of Educational Sciences – Qatar University 17 (17). https://doi.org/10.29117/jes.2021.0052.
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Articles in Arabic