Child Abduction and Forum Shopping: The Hague Convention on Child Abduction to Protect Children in Cases of Parental Divorce
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Sep 17, 2026
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Sara Hamad Al-Qarah
https://orcid.org/0009-0003-3325-4007
https://orcid.org/0009-0003-3325-4007
Abstract
The present article explores the issues of international child abduction and forum shopping in the context of divorcing parents, with a primary focus on the Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction. The research draws inspiration from the growing global occurrence of child abduction in cross-border divorce cases and the strategic use of jurisdiction known as forum shopping—to legitimize such actions or avoid responsibility. Existing literature addresses child abduction from psychological and legal angles but insufficiently covers the convergence of abduction with forum shopping and the Convention’s role in mitigating it. The objective of this research is to evaluate the Convention’s effectiveness in safeguarding children and discouraging abuse in private international law. For the present study, a doctrinal and analytical approach was employed, further supported by case law. The study also incorporates empirical data and documented cases to assess the Convention’s practical application. The findings demonstrate that while the Hague Convention on Abductions has improved international cooperation and the return of abducted children, its success is limited by non-universal ratification, legal loopholes, and challenges in enforcement. The Convention’s provisions do limit forum shopping by prioritizing the child’s habitual residence, yet do not preclude it. This research contributes to private international law by clarifying how the Convention may be abused for jurisdictional manipulation. It offers practical recommendations, such as broader ratification and consistent application standards. The study adds value by filling a notable gap in the literature. It sets the objectives of defining transboundary child abductions, identifying the scope of the Hague Convention, understanding how forum shopping can be used to avoid justice, and the mechanisms of the Convention to fight such abuse.
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Keywords
Child abductionForum shoppingPrivate international lawHague Convention on the Civil Aspects of Child Abduction
References
Primary Sources
Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction, 25 October 1980, 1343, UNTS, 89.
Qatar, Law No. 2 of 2017 Promulgating the Civil and Commercial Arbitration Law (2017).
UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (Nov. 11, 1989) 1577 UNTS 3.
Case Law
Diorinou v Mezitis, 237 F2d 133, 142-143 (CA 2, 2001).
Feder v Evans-Feder, 63 F3d 217, 224 (CA 3, 1995).
Friedrich v Friedrich, 983 F2d 1396, 1401 (CA 6, 1993).
Goad v. Celotex Corp., 831 F.2d 508, 512 n.12 (4th Cir. 1987).
Helene Curtis Indus. v. Sales Affiliates, 105 F. Supp. 886, 902 (S.D.N.Y. 1952).
Mantegazza v Mantegazza [2017] EWHC 3811.
Nottebohm (Liechtenstein v Guatemala), Second Phase, I.C.J Reports (1955).
Books
Bell, Andrew S. Forum Shopping and Venue in Transnational Litigation (2003), (https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199248186.001.0001).
Black, Henry Campbell, ‘Black's Law Dictionary ' (1990).
Bowlby, John. Attachment and loss: Separation (1973).
Kreijen, Gerald et al. State, Sovereignty, and International Governance (2002),
(https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199245383.001.0001).
Lauterpacht, Hersch. ‘International Law Being the Collected Papers of Hersch Lauterpacht (1970)', (https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511793912.033).
Salles, Luiz Eduardo. The Rise of Forum Shopping in Forum Shopping in International Adjudication: The Role of Preliminary Objections (2014), (https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139565745).
Von Mehren, Arthur Taylor, Theory and Practice of Adjudicatory Authority in Private International Law: A Comparative Study of the Doctrine, Policies and Practices of Common- And Civil-Law Systems’ (2003).
Pérez-Vera, III Elisa. Child Abduction in Offprint from the Acts and Documents of the Fourteenth Session (1980).
Journal Articles
Atkeson, Beveryl M., et al. The Effects of Divorce on Children in Benjamin B. Lahey & Alan E. Kazdin, (eds.) 5 Advances in Clinical Child Psychology (1982).
Agopian, Michael W. Agopian, ‘Parental child-stealing’, Lexington, 1 (1981), (https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X8100200405).
Whytock, Christopher A. Whytock, ‘The Evolving Forum Shopping System’, 96 Cornell L. Rev. 481, 486 (2011).
Wright, Skelly Wright, ‘The Federal Courts and the Nature and Quality of State Law’, 13 WLR 317, 333 (1967), (https://doi.org/10.2307/1288858).
Yousefi, Leena Yousefi, Jurisdiction in Family Matters: Forum Shopping Can Backfire, YLAW (May 17, 2022) [https://www.ylaw.ca/blog/jurisdiction-in-family-matters-forum-shopping-can-backfire/].
Al Ubaidi, Basem Abbas Al Ubaidi, ‘The Psychological and Emotional Stages of Divorce’, 3 J Fam Med Dis Prev, 3:060 (2017), (http://dx.doi.org/10.23937/2469-5793/1510060).
Algero, Mary Garvey Algero, ‘In Defense of Forum Shopping: A Realistic Look at Selecting a Venue’, 78 Neb. L. Rev. 78, 80 (1999).
Brand, Jennie Brand et al., ‘Parental divorce is not uniformly disruptive to children’s educational attainment’, 116(15) PNAS, 7266-7271 (2019), ( https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1813049116).
Bolch, John Bolch, ‘Forum shopping and the case of Mantegazza v Mantegazza’, Stowe Family Law, (Jul. 5, 2018).
Boudreaux, Monique Cloud et al. Child Abduction: An Overview of Current and Historical Perspectives, 5 CHILD MALTREAT, 63-72 (2000), ( https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559500005001008).
Freeman, Marilyn Freeman, The Effects and Consequences of International Child Abduction, 32 FLQ, 603 606-609 (1998).
Forehand, Rex et al. Parental Child Abduction: The Problem and Possible Solution. in Benjamin B. Lahey & Alan E. Kazdin, (eds.) 12 Advances in Clinical Child Psychology (1989).
Gardner, Richard Gardner, Parental alienation syndrome vs. parental alienation: which diagnosis should evaluators use in child-custody disputes? 30 AJFT, 93-115, (2002).
Gelles, Richard James Gelles, ‘Parent child snatching: A preliminary estimate of national incident’. 146 JOUR. MAR. FAM, 735, 735-736 (1984), (https://doi.org/10.2307/352616).
Greif, Geoffrey L. Greif, ‘The Long-Term Aftermath of Child Abduction: Two Case Studies and Implications for Family Therapy’, 37 AJFT, 273, 279-280 (2009), (http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01926180902754711).
Grignon-Dumoulin, Stéphanie Grignon-Dumoulin, Forum Shopping-Article 31 de la CMR, 11 ULR 609-10 (2006), (https://doi.org/10.1093/ulr/11.3.609).
Hegar, Rebecca L., Hegar and Greif, Geoffrey L. Greif, Abduction of Children by Their Parents: A Survey of the Problem, 36 SW, 421-426 (1991).
Maloy, Richard Maloy, ‘Forum Shopping? What's Wrong With That?’. 24 QLR 25, 25 (2005).
Miller, Neal Miller, ‘An Empirical Study of Forum Choices in Removal Cases Under Diversity and Federal Question Jurisdiction’, 41 AULR 369, 400 (1992).
Nakdai, Lisa Nakdai, ‘It's 10 P.M., Do You Know Where Your Children are?: The Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction’, 40 Fam. Ct. Rev., 251, 252 (2002), (https://doi.org/10.1111/j.174-1617.2002.tb00837.x).
Park, William W. Park, ‘A Fair Fight: Professional Guidelines in International Arbitration’, 30 JLCIA (2014).
Petsche, Markus Petsche, ‘What's Wrong with Forum Shopping - An Attempt to Identify and Assess the Real Issues of a Controversial Practice’, 45 INT'L L. 1005 (2011).
Pfund, Peter H. Pfund, ‘The Hague Convention on International Child Abduction, the International Child Abduction Remedies Act, and the Need for Availability of Counsel for All Petitioners’ 24 FLQ 35-51 (1990).
Queirolo, Ilaria Queirolo, ‘International Child Abduction and the 1980 Hague Convention in Practice: The Biran Case’, 2 IRIC, 191, 192-193, (2022).
Rothschild, Gita F. Rothschild, Forum Shopping, 24 Litigation, 40, 40 (1998).
Senior, Neil, Toba Gladstone, & Nurcombe, Barry. Child Snatching: A Case Report, 21 J. AM. ACAD. CHILD PSYCHIATRY., 579-583 (1982), (https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-198211000-00012).
Sagatun, Inger J. Sagatun & Barrett, Lin Barrett, ‘Parental child abduction: The law, family dynamics, and legal system responses’. 18 JCJ 433-442, 437 (1990), (https://doi.org/10.1016/0047-2352(90)90058-J).
Schnitzer-Reese, Ericka A. Schnitzer-Reese, International Child Abduction to non-Hague Convention Countries: The need for an International Family Court, 2 Nw. J. Int'l Hum. Rts. 1 (2004).
Silberman, Linda Silberman, ‘Interpreting the Hague Abduction Convention: In Search of a Global Jurisprudence’ 18 NYUPLLTW 1, 6 (2006), (https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.723161).
Spilman, Sarah K. Spilman, Child Abduction, Parents’ Distress, and Social Support, 21 VV, 149 (2006), (https://doi.org/10.1891/vivi.21.2.149).
Todd, Julia A. Todd, ‘The Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction: Are the Convention's Goals Being Achieved?’, 2 IJGLS, 553, 553-555 (1995).
Web Sources
Buck, Naomi Buck, ‘Every parent’s nightmare: Your spouse flees the country with your kids, and the government is in no rush to help’, The Globe and Mail (Apr. 11, 2019) https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/article-international-abductions-canada-has-to-move-faster-when-foreign/.
Easiest Countries to Get Citizenship 2023, World Population Review (2023) https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/easiest-countries-to-get-citizenship.
‘How To Prevent Child Abduction During A Custody Battle’, Gardner Quad Squad (2022), [https://gardnerquadsquad.com/how-to-prevent-child-abduction-during-a-custody-battle/].
Qatar, US Call for Ending Children Abduction in Conflicts, Crisis, Permanent Mission of the State of Qatar to the United Nations, (2018). https://ny.mission.qa/en/media/news/detail/2018/11/27/qatar-us-call-for-ending-children-abduction-in-conflicts-crisis.
Release of the 2023 Annual Report on International Parental Child Abduction, US DEPARTMENT OF STATE (2023) https://www.state.gov/release-of-the-2023-annual-report-on-international-parental-child-abduction/.
Status Table: Convention of 25 October 1980 on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction, HCCH (Nov. 14, 2022) https://www.hcch.net/en/instruments/conventions/status-table/?cid=24.
Vuleta, Branka Vuleta, 30 Scary Kidnapping Statistics You Can’t Afford To Ignore, Legal Jobs Blog, (May 18, 2023) https://legaljobs.io/blog/kidnapping-statistics.
Miscellaneous
Family Abductions: What We’ve Learned: An In-Depth Analysis by the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, National Center for Missing & Exploited Children (2018).
Global Affairs Canada. International Child Abductions: A Guide for Affected Parents, 2 (2023)
Katz, Sanford et. al., ‘Legal issues in parental kidnapping’, National Institute of Justice Conference on Parental Kidnapping, (1980) (https://doi.org/10.1016/0047-2352(90)90058-J).
Voser, Nathalie Voser, Gottlieb, Benjamin Gottlieb & Groselj, Luka Groselj, ‘Arbitration in Switzerland’, Thomson Reuters Practical Law, UK Practical Law (2020) [https://uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/9-513-8272].
Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction, 25 October 1980, 1343, UNTS, 89.
Qatar, Law No. 2 of 2017 Promulgating the Civil and Commercial Arbitration Law (2017).
UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (Nov. 11, 1989) 1577 UNTS 3.
Case Law
Diorinou v Mezitis, 237 F2d 133, 142-143 (CA 2, 2001).
Feder v Evans-Feder, 63 F3d 217, 224 (CA 3, 1995).
Friedrich v Friedrich, 983 F2d 1396, 1401 (CA 6, 1993).
Goad v. Celotex Corp., 831 F.2d 508, 512 n.12 (4th Cir. 1987).
Helene Curtis Indus. v. Sales Affiliates, 105 F. Supp. 886, 902 (S.D.N.Y. 1952).
Mantegazza v Mantegazza [2017] EWHC 3811.
Nottebohm (Liechtenstein v Guatemala), Second Phase, I.C.J Reports (1955).
Books
Bell, Andrew S. Forum Shopping and Venue in Transnational Litigation (2003), (https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199248186.001.0001).
Black, Henry Campbell, ‘Black's Law Dictionary ' (1990).
Bowlby, John. Attachment and loss: Separation (1973).
Kreijen, Gerald et al. State, Sovereignty, and International Governance (2002),
(https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199245383.001.0001).
Lauterpacht, Hersch. ‘International Law Being the Collected Papers of Hersch Lauterpacht (1970)', (https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511793912.033).
Salles, Luiz Eduardo. The Rise of Forum Shopping in Forum Shopping in International Adjudication: The Role of Preliminary Objections (2014), (https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139565745).
Von Mehren, Arthur Taylor, Theory and Practice of Adjudicatory Authority in Private International Law: A Comparative Study of the Doctrine, Policies and Practices of Common- And Civil-Law Systems’ (2003).
Pérez-Vera, III Elisa. Child Abduction in Offprint from the Acts and Documents of the Fourteenth Session (1980).
Journal Articles
Atkeson, Beveryl M., et al. The Effects of Divorce on Children in Benjamin B. Lahey & Alan E. Kazdin, (eds.) 5 Advances in Clinical Child Psychology (1982).
Agopian, Michael W. Agopian, ‘Parental child-stealing’, Lexington, 1 (1981), (https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X8100200405).
Whytock, Christopher A. Whytock, ‘The Evolving Forum Shopping System’, 96 Cornell L. Rev. 481, 486 (2011).
Wright, Skelly Wright, ‘The Federal Courts and the Nature and Quality of State Law’, 13 WLR 317, 333 (1967), (https://doi.org/10.2307/1288858).
Yousefi, Leena Yousefi, Jurisdiction in Family Matters: Forum Shopping Can Backfire, YLAW (May 17, 2022) [https://www.ylaw.ca/blog/jurisdiction-in-family-matters-forum-shopping-can-backfire/].
Al Ubaidi, Basem Abbas Al Ubaidi, ‘The Psychological and Emotional Stages of Divorce’, 3 J Fam Med Dis Prev, 3:060 (2017), (http://dx.doi.org/10.23937/2469-5793/1510060).
Algero, Mary Garvey Algero, ‘In Defense of Forum Shopping: A Realistic Look at Selecting a Venue’, 78 Neb. L. Rev. 78, 80 (1999).
Brand, Jennie Brand et al., ‘Parental divorce is not uniformly disruptive to children’s educational attainment’, 116(15) PNAS, 7266-7271 (2019), ( https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1813049116).
Bolch, John Bolch, ‘Forum shopping and the case of Mantegazza v Mantegazza’, Stowe Family Law, (Jul. 5, 2018).
Boudreaux, Monique Cloud et al. Child Abduction: An Overview of Current and Historical Perspectives, 5 CHILD MALTREAT, 63-72 (2000), ( https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559500005001008).
Freeman, Marilyn Freeman, The Effects and Consequences of International Child Abduction, 32 FLQ, 603 606-609 (1998).
Forehand, Rex et al. Parental Child Abduction: The Problem and Possible Solution. in Benjamin B. Lahey & Alan E. Kazdin, (eds.) 12 Advances in Clinical Child Psychology (1989).
Gardner, Richard Gardner, Parental alienation syndrome vs. parental alienation: which diagnosis should evaluators use in child-custody disputes? 30 AJFT, 93-115, (2002).
Gelles, Richard James Gelles, ‘Parent child snatching: A preliminary estimate of national incident’. 146 JOUR. MAR. FAM, 735, 735-736 (1984), (https://doi.org/10.2307/352616).
Greif, Geoffrey L. Greif, ‘The Long-Term Aftermath of Child Abduction: Two Case Studies and Implications for Family Therapy’, 37 AJFT, 273, 279-280 (2009), (http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01926180902754711).
Grignon-Dumoulin, Stéphanie Grignon-Dumoulin, Forum Shopping-Article 31 de la CMR, 11 ULR 609-10 (2006), (https://doi.org/10.1093/ulr/11.3.609).
Hegar, Rebecca L., Hegar and Greif, Geoffrey L. Greif, Abduction of Children by Their Parents: A Survey of the Problem, 36 SW, 421-426 (1991).
Maloy, Richard Maloy, ‘Forum Shopping? What's Wrong With That?’. 24 QLR 25, 25 (2005).
Miller, Neal Miller, ‘An Empirical Study of Forum Choices in Removal Cases Under Diversity and Federal Question Jurisdiction’, 41 AULR 369, 400 (1992).
Nakdai, Lisa Nakdai, ‘It's 10 P.M., Do You Know Where Your Children are?: The Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction’, 40 Fam. Ct. Rev., 251, 252 (2002), (https://doi.org/10.1111/j.174-1617.2002.tb00837.x).
Park, William W. Park, ‘A Fair Fight: Professional Guidelines in International Arbitration’, 30 JLCIA (2014).
Petsche, Markus Petsche, ‘What's Wrong with Forum Shopping - An Attempt to Identify and Assess the Real Issues of a Controversial Practice’, 45 INT'L L. 1005 (2011).
Pfund, Peter H. Pfund, ‘The Hague Convention on International Child Abduction, the International Child Abduction Remedies Act, and the Need for Availability of Counsel for All Petitioners’ 24 FLQ 35-51 (1990).
Queirolo, Ilaria Queirolo, ‘International Child Abduction and the 1980 Hague Convention in Practice: The Biran Case’, 2 IRIC, 191, 192-193, (2022).
Rothschild, Gita F. Rothschild, Forum Shopping, 24 Litigation, 40, 40 (1998).
Senior, Neil, Toba Gladstone, & Nurcombe, Barry. Child Snatching: A Case Report, 21 J. AM. ACAD. CHILD PSYCHIATRY., 579-583 (1982), (https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-198211000-00012).
Sagatun, Inger J. Sagatun & Barrett, Lin Barrett, ‘Parental child abduction: The law, family dynamics, and legal system responses’. 18 JCJ 433-442, 437 (1990), (https://doi.org/10.1016/0047-2352(90)90058-J).
Schnitzer-Reese, Ericka A. Schnitzer-Reese, International Child Abduction to non-Hague Convention Countries: The need for an International Family Court, 2 Nw. J. Int'l Hum. Rts. 1 (2004).
Silberman, Linda Silberman, ‘Interpreting the Hague Abduction Convention: In Search of a Global Jurisprudence’ 18 NYUPLLTW 1, 6 (2006), (https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.723161).
Spilman, Sarah K. Spilman, Child Abduction, Parents’ Distress, and Social Support, 21 VV, 149 (2006), (https://doi.org/10.1891/vivi.21.2.149).
Todd, Julia A. Todd, ‘The Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction: Are the Convention's Goals Being Achieved?’, 2 IJGLS, 553, 553-555 (1995).
Web Sources
Buck, Naomi Buck, ‘Every parent’s nightmare: Your spouse flees the country with your kids, and the government is in no rush to help’, The Globe and Mail (Apr. 11, 2019) https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/article-international-abductions-canada-has-to-move-faster-when-foreign/.
Easiest Countries to Get Citizenship 2023, World Population Review (2023) https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/easiest-countries-to-get-citizenship.
‘How To Prevent Child Abduction During A Custody Battle’, Gardner Quad Squad (2022), [https://gardnerquadsquad.com/how-to-prevent-child-abduction-during-a-custody-battle/].
Qatar, US Call for Ending Children Abduction in Conflicts, Crisis, Permanent Mission of the State of Qatar to the United Nations, (2018). https://ny.mission.qa/en/media/news/detail/2018/11/27/qatar-us-call-for-ending-children-abduction-in-conflicts-crisis.
Release of the 2023 Annual Report on International Parental Child Abduction, US DEPARTMENT OF STATE (2023) https://www.state.gov/release-of-the-2023-annual-report-on-international-parental-child-abduction/.
Status Table: Convention of 25 October 1980 on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction, HCCH (Nov. 14, 2022) https://www.hcch.net/en/instruments/conventions/status-table/?cid=24.
Vuleta, Branka Vuleta, 30 Scary Kidnapping Statistics You Can’t Afford To Ignore, Legal Jobs Blog, (May 18, 2023) https://legaljobs.io/blog/kidnapping-statistics.
Miscellaneous
Family Abductions: What We’ve Learned: An In-Depth Analysis by the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, National Center for Missing & Exploited Children (2018).
Global Affairs Canada. International Child Abductions: A Guide for Affected Parents, 2 (2023)
Katz, Sanford et. al., ‘Legal issues in parental kidnapping’, National Institute of Justice Conference on Parental Kidnapping, (1980) (https://doi.org/10.1016/0047-2352(90)90058-J).
Voser, Nathalie Voser, Gottlieb, Benjamin Gottlieb & Groselj, Luka Groselj, ‘Arbitration in Switzerland’, Thomson Reuters Practical Law, UK Practical Law (2020) [https://uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/9-513-8272].
How to Cite
Al-Qarah, S. H. (2026). Child Abduction and Forum Shopping: The Hague Convention on Child Abduction to Protect Children in Cases of Parental Divorce. International Review of Law, 15(2). https://doi.org/10.29117/irl.2026.0383
Section
Articles in English