Premenstrual Syndrome and Criminal Liability in Iranian Law: A Legal Lacuna
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Published
Jan 29, 2026
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Abolfazl Alishahi ghaleh joughi
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7205-759X
Sedighe Riahi Rad
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0830-8598
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7205-759X
Sedighe Riahi Rad
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0830-8598
Abstract
Objectives: This study examines whether Iranian law and jurisprudence support the hypothesis that certain women are more predisposed to criminal behavior during their menstrual cycle, which then warrants a reduction in their punishment.
Methodology: Using a descriptive-analytical approach, this research explores perspectives from medical professionals, lawyers, and jurists regarding premenstrual syndrome (PMS) as a mental disorder with potential implications for mitigating criminal liability.
Findings: A key finding of this study is that PMS has been categorized as a type of mental disorder. By analyzing legal provisions related to mental disorder in Iranian law and interpretations of the term ‘harm’ (adhā) in Qur’an 2:222 (Al-Baqarah/The Cow) concerning menstruation, this study assesses whether PMS can serve as a mitigating factor in criminal sentencing under Iranian law.
Originality: While many jurists argue for a correlation between PMS and criminal behavior, which suggests that it should be considered in sentencing reductions, Iranian law discourse has largely overlooked this issue. Notably, PMS serves as a mitigating factor in various legal systems worldwide, yet its legal implications remain unexplored in Iranian law.
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Keywords
WomenMenstruationPremenstrual syndrome disorder (PMS)PunishmentMitigationHarm (adhā)
References
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_____. Anwār al-faqāha: kitāb al-nikāḥ (in Arabic). Qum: Madrasat al-Imām ʿAlī, 2004.
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Barrett, Kim E., Susan M. Barman, Scott Boitano, and Heddwen L. Brooks. Eds. Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology. New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 25th ed., 2016.
Cumming, Ceinwen E., Eugene E. Fox, and David C. Cumming. “Intermenstrual Affect in Women with Symptomatic Premenstrual Change.” Journal of Psychosomatic Research. Vol. 39, No. 3 (1995), pp. 261-69. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3999(94)00139-v
Daneshgar, Maid. “The Viewpoint of the Quran and Medicine on Marital Health and Sexual Issues” (in Persian). Journal of Medical Ethics. Vol. 3, Issue 9 (2010), pp. 73-92.
Ducasse, Déborah, Isabelle Jaussent, Emilie Olié, Sébastien Guillaume, Jorge Lopez-Castroman, and Philippe Courtet. “Personality Traits of Suicidality are Associated with Premenstrual Syndrome and Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder in a Suicidal Women Sample.” PLoS One. Vol. 11, No. 2 (2016), pp. 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0148653
Easteal, Patricia L., Neil Kaye, and Thomas Reed. “PMS: Legal Usage and Limitations,” pp. 2149-2156. In Wiley Encyclopedia of Forensic Science. Eds. Allan Jamieson and Andre Moenssens. Chichester, Volume:4. UK: John Wiley & Sons, 2009.
Ghalehjoughi, Abolfazl Alishahi, and Sedigheh Riahi Rad. “The Effect of Premenstrual Syndrome on Delinquency in Iranian Law.” Sefarad. Vol. 19, No. 2 (2024): 20-30.
Grose, Nicole R. “Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder as a Mitigating Factor in Sentencing: Following the Lead of English Criminal Courts.” Valparaiso University Law Review. Vol. 33, No. (1998), pp. 201-30.
Henaghan, Caroline. “The Premenstrual Defendant: Should she be Held Fully Responsible for her Criminal Actions?” PhD Dissertation. Manchester: The University of Manchester, 2019.
Ibn Rajab, Al-Ḥāfiẓ Abī al-Faraḥ ʿAbd al-Raḥmān. Tafsīr Ibn Rajab al-Ḥanbalī: rawāʾiʿ al-tafsīr al-jāmiʿ li-tafsīr al-Imām Ibn Rajab al-Ḥanbalī (in Arabic). 2 vols. Ed. Ṭāriq b. ʿAwaḍ Allah b. Muḥammad. Riyadh: Dār al-ʿĀṣimah, 2001.
Ibn Sulaymān, Muqātil. Tafsīr Muqātil b. Sulaymān (in Arabic). 5 vols. Ed. ʿAbd Allah Maḥmūd Shaḥāta. Beirut: Muʾassasat al-Tārīkh al-ʿArabī, 2002.
Jose, Neethu, and Jayesh K. Joseph. “Neurocriminology.” International Journal of Nursing Education and Research. Vol. 5, No. 1 (2017), pp. 108-14. https://doi.org/10.5958/2454-2660.2017.00023.0
Langer, Rosanna. “That Time of Month: Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder in the Criminal Law: Another Look.” International Journal of Criminology and Sociology. Vol. 1 (2012): 29-44. https://doi.org/10.6000/1929-4409.2012.01.3
Lewis, James W. “Premenstrual Syndrome as a Criminal Defense.” Archives of Sexual Behavior. No. 19 (1990): 425-441. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02442346
Ling, Shichun, Rebecca Umbach, and Adrian Raine. “Biological Explanations of Criminal Behavior.” Psychology, Crime, and Law, 25-6 (2019): 626-640. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2019.1572753
Lowenstein, Ludwig. “The Genetic Aspect of Criminality.” Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment. Vol. 8, No. 1 (2004), pp. 63-78. https://doi.org/10.1300/J137v08n01_04
Marchuk, Iryana. The Fundamental Concept of Crime in International Criminal Law: A Comparative Law Analysis. London and New York: Springer, 2014.
Maʿrifat, Muḥammad Hādī. Al-Tamhīd fī ʿulūm al-Qurʾān (in Arabic). 10 vols. Beirut: Dār al-Taʿāruf, 2011.
Mayo, Joseph L. “Premenstrual Syndrome: A Natural Approach to Management.” Applied Nutritional Science Reports. Vol. 5, No. 6 (1999), pp. 1-8.
McSherry, Bernadette. “Premenstrual Syndrome and Criminal Responsibility.” Psychiatry Psychology and Law. Vol. 1, No. 2 (1994), pp. 139-151. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719409524837
Morse, Stephen. “Mental Disorder and Criminal Law.” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. Vol. 101, No. 3 (2011), pp. 885-968.
Muṭahharī, Shahīd Murtaẓā. Majmūʾah Āthār (in Persian). 19 vols. Tehran: Ṣadrā, 2012.
Nouri, Gazala B., and Al-Zankī, Qādir S. “The Islamic Prescriptive Discourse on Individual Differences” (in Arabic). Journal of College of Sharia and Islamic Studies. Vol. 41, No. 1 (2023), pp. 101-28. https://doi.org/10.29117/jcsis.2023.0348
Pahl-Smith, Candy. “Premenstrual Syndrome as a Criminal Defense: The Need for a Medico-Legal Understanding.” North Carolina Central Law Review. Vol. 15, No. 2 (1985), pp. 246-73.
Qarshī, Sayyid ʿAlī Akbar. Qāmūs Qurʾān (in Persian). 7 vols. Tehran: Dār al-Kutub al-Islāmiyah, 1992.
Salleh, Siti Fatimah, et al. “Intercourse During Menstruation: Islamic Ethics and Medical Views.” International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences. Vol. 8, No. 10 (2018), pp. 212-217. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v8-i10/4726
Saheeh International. The Qur’an: English Translation. Jeddah: Saheeh International, 1997.
Shors, Tracey J., and Benedetta Leuner. “Estrogen-Mediated Effects on Depression and Memory Formation in Females.” Journal of Affective Disorders. Vol. 74, No. 1 (2003), pp. 85-96. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0165-0327(02)00428-7
St. John, Victoria. “Premenstrual Syndrome in the Criminal Law.” Auckland University Law Review. Vol. 8, No. 2 (1996), pp. 331-351.
Ṭāliqānī, Maḥmūd. Patrovi az Quran (in Persian). 6 vols. Tehran: Anteshar, 1983.
Taylor, Hugh S., Lubna Pal, and Emre Sell. Speroff’s Clinical Gynecologic Endocrinology and Infertility. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer, 9th ed., 2019.
Tehrani, Jasmine, and Sarnoff Mednick. “Genetic Factors and Criminal Behavior.” Federal Probation. Vol. 64, No. 2 (2000), pp. 24-27.
Uzunçakmak, Tuğba, and Sultan Ayaz Alkaya. “Effect of Aromatherapy on Coping with Premenstrual Syndrome: A Randomized Controlled Trial.” Complementary Therapies in Medicine. Vol. 36 (2018), pp. 63-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctim.2017.11.022
Walsh, William J., Laura B. Glab, and Mary L. Haakenson. “Reduced Violent Behavior Following Biochemical Therapy.” Physiology and Behavior. Vol. 82, No. 5 (2004), pp. 835–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2004.06.023
Yadukul, S., Sumangala C. N., Parinitha, and Suresh B. M. “Pre-Menstrual Syndrome and Crime: A Study in Parappana Agrahara Central Jail, Bengaluru.” Journal of South India Medicolegal Association. Vol. 8, No. 1 (2016), pp. 6-10.
Abootalebi, Maliheh, Mansoureh Dehghani, and Marzieh Akbarzadeh. “Implementing of Mental Health Training Programs for Promotion of Health Affected Teenage Girls to Premenstrual Syndrome: A Community-Based Study.” Journal of Education and Health Promotion. Vol. 9, No. 1 (2020), pp. 1-6. https://doi.org/10.4103/jehp.jehp_118_20
Adler, Freda, William S. Laufer, and Gerhard W. Mueller. Criminology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 6th ed., 2006.
Al-Ardabīlī, Aḥmad b. Muḥammad. Zubdat al-bayān fī aḥkām al-Qurʾān (in Arabic). Ed. Muḥammad al-Bāqir al-Bahbūdī. Tehran: Al-Maktaba al-Murtaḍawiya, n.d.
Al-Blāghī, Muḥammad Jawād. Ālāʾ al-raḥmān fī tafsīr al-Qurʾān (in Arabic). 2 vols. Beirut: Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī, 1936.
Al-Galpāyagāni, Muḥammad Riḍā. Al-Durr al-manḍūd fī aḥkām al-ḥudūd (in Arabic). 3 vols. Qum: Dār al-Qurʾān al-Karīm, 1993.
Al-Ḥillī, Abī Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Idrīs. Al-Sarā’ir al-ḥāwī li-taḥrīr al-fatāwī (in Arabic). 3 vols. Qum: Muʾassasat al-Nashr al-Islāmī, 1989.
Al-Khumaynī, Mūsawī. Kitāb al-ṭahāra (in Arabic). 4 vols. Tehran: Muʾassasat Tanẓīm wa-Nashr Āthār al-Khumaynī, 2013.
Al-Majlisī, Muḥammad Bāqir. Biḥār al-anwār al-jamiʿa li-durar akhbār al-aʾimma al-aṭhār (in Arabic). 100 vols. Beirut: Muʾassasat al-Wafāʾ and Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī, 1983.
Al-Mudarrisī, Muḥammad Taqī. Min hudā al-Qurʾān (in Arabic). 13 vols. Beirut: Dār al-Qāriʾ, 2nd ed., 2008.
Al-Rūmī, Fahd b. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān. Ittijāhāt al-tafsīr fīl-qarn al-rābiʿ ʿashar (in Arabic). 3 vols. Riyadh: Idārāt al-Buḥūth al-ʿIlmiyyah wal-Iftāʾ, 1986.
Al-Shāfiʿī, Muḥammad b. Idrīs. Al-Umm: Mawsūʿat al-Imām al-Shāfʿī (in Arabic). 10 vols. Ed. Aḥmad Badr al-Dīn Ḥassūn. Beirut: Dār Qutayba, 2003.
Al-Shīrāzī, Nāṣir Makārim. Al-Amthal fī tafsīr kitāb Allah al-munazzal (in Arabic). 25 vols. Qum: Madrasat al-Imām ʿAlī, 2001.
_____. Anwār al-faqāha: kitāb al-nikāḥ (in Arabic). Qum: Madrasat al-Imām ʿAlī, 2004.
Al-Suyūṭī, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. Abī Bakr Jalāl al-Dīn. Al-Durr al-manthūr fī al-tafsīr al-maʾthūr (in Arabic). 7 vols. Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, 1993.
Al-Ṭabarī, Abū Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Jarīr. Tafsīr al-Ṭabarī, jāmiʿ al-bayān ʿan taʾwīl al-Qurʾān (in Arabic). 26 vols. Ed. ʿAbd Allāh b. ʿAbd al-Muḥsin al-Turkī. Cairo: Dār Hajar, 2001.
Al-Ṭabarsī, Abū ʿAlī al-Faḍl b. al-Ḥasan. Majmaʿ al-bayān fī tafsīr al-Qurʾān (in Arabic). Vol. 10. Beirut: Muʾassasat al-Aʿlamī, 1994.
Bahmanpouri, Abdullah, Sedigheh Riahi Rad, and Habib Ardekani. “Jurisprudential Explanation of the Sexual Intercourse during Menstruation” (in Persian). Feghh Journal. Vol. 11, No. 40-41 (2019-2020), pp. 33-44.
Barrett, Kim E., Susan M. Barman, Scott Boitano, and Heddwen L. Brooks. Eds. Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology. New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 25th ed., 2016.
Cumming, Ceinwen E., Eugene E. Fox, and David C. Cumming. “Intermenstrual Affect in Women with Symptomatic Premenstrual Change.” Journal of Psychosomatic Research. Vol. 39, No. 3 (1995), pp. 261-69. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3999(94)00139-v
Daneshgar, Maid. “The Viewpoint of the Quran and Medicine on Marital Health and Sexual Issues” (in Persian). Journal of Medical Ethics. Vol. 3, Issue 9 (2010), pp. 73-92.
Ducasse, Déborah, Isabelle Jaussent, Emilie Olié, Sébastien Guillaume, Jorge Lopez-Castroman, and Philippe Courtet. “Personality Traits of Suicidality are Associated with Premenstrual Syndrome and Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder in a Suicidal Women Sample.” PLoS One. Vol. 11, No. 2 (2016), pp. 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0148653
Easteal, Patricia L., Neil Kaye, and Thomas Reed. “PMS: Legal Usage and Limitations,” pp. 2149-2156. In Wiley Encyclopedia of Forensic Science. Eds. Allan Jamieson and Andre Moenssens. Chichester, Volume:4. UK: John Wiley & Sons, 2009.
Ghalehjoughi, Abolfazl Alishahi, and Sedigheh Riahi Rad. “The Effect of Premenstrual Syndrome on Delinquency in Iranian Law.” Sefarad. Vol. 19, No. 2 (2024): 20-30.
Grose, Nicole R. “Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder as a Mitigating Factor in Sentencing: Following the Lead of English Criminal Courts.” Valparaiso University Law Review. Vol. 33, No. (1998), pp. 201-30.
Henaghan, Caroline. “The Premenstrual Defendant: Should she be Held Fully Responsible for her Criminal Actions?” PhD Dissertation. Manchester: The University of Manchester, 2019.
Ibn Rajab, Al-Ḥāfiẓ Abī al-Faraḥ ʿAbd al-Raḥmān. Tafsīr Ibn Rajab al-Ḥanbalī: rawāʾiʿ al-tafsīr al-jāmiʿ li-tafsīr al-Imām Ibn Rajab al-Ḥanbalī (in Arabic). 2 vols. Ed. Ṭāriq b. ʿAwaḍ Allah b. Muḥammad. Riyadh: Dār al-ʿĀṣimah, 2001.
Ibn Sulaymān, Muqātil. Tafsīr Muqātil b. Sulaymān (in Arabic). 5 vols. Ed. ʿAbd Allah Maḥmūd Shaḥāta. Beirut: Muʾassasat al-Tārīkh al-ʿArabī, 2002.
Jose, Neethu, and Jayesh K. Joseph. “Neurocriminology.” International Journal of Nursing Education and Research. Vol. 5, No. 1 (2017), pp. 108-14. https://doi.org/10.5958/2454-2660.2017.00023.0
Langer, Rosanna. “That Time of Month: Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder in the Criminal Law: Another Look.” International Journal of Criminology and Sociology. Vol. 1 (2012): 29-44. https://doi.org/10.6000/1929-4409.2012.01.3
Lewis, James W. “Premenstrual Syndrome as a Criminal Defense.” Archives of Sexual Behavior. No. 19 (1990): 425-441. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02442346
Ling, Shichun, Rebecca Umbach, and Adrian Raine. “Biological Explanations of Criminal Behavior.” Psychology, Crime, and Law, 25-6 (2019): 626-640. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2019.1572753
Lowenstein, Ludwig. “The Genetic Aspect of Criminality.” Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment. Vol. 8, No. 1 (2004), pp. 63-78. https://doi.org/10.1300/J137v08n01_04
Marchuk, Iryana. The Fundamental Concept of Crime in International Criminal Law: A Comparative Law Analysis. London and New York: Springer, 2014.
Maʿrifat, Muḥammad Hādī. Al-Tamhīd fī ʿulūm al-Qurʾān (in Arabic). 10 vols. Beirut: Dār al-Taʿāruf, 2011.
Mayo, Joseph L. “Premenstrual Syndrome: A Natural Approach to Management.” Applied Nutritional Science Reports. Vol. 5, No. 6 (1999), pp. 1-8.
McSherry, Bernadette. “Premenstrual Syndrome and Criminal Responsibility.” Psychiatry Psychology and Law. Vol. 1, No. 2 (1994), pp. 139-151. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719409524837
Morse, Stephen. “Mental Disorder and Criminal Law.” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. Vol. 101, No. 3 (2011), pp. 885-968.
Muṭahharī, Shahīd Murtaẓā. Majmūʾah Āthār (in Persian). 19 vols. Tehran: Ṣadrā, 2012.
Nouri, Gazala B., and Al-Zankī, Qādir S. “The Islamic Prescriptive Discourse on Individual Differences” (in Arabic). Journal of College of Sharia and Islamic Studies. Vol. 41, No. 1 (2023), pp. 101-28. https://doi.org/10.29117/jcsis.2023.0348
Pahl-Smith, Candy. “Premenstrual Syndrome as a Criminal Defense: The Need for a Medico-Legal Understanding.” North Carolina Central Law Review. Vol. 15, No. 2 (1985), pp. 246-73.
Qarshī, Sayyid ʿAlī Akbar. Qāmūs Qurʾān (in Persian). 7 vols. Tehran: Dār al-Kutub al-Islāmiyah, 1992.
Salleh, Siti Fatimah, et al. “Intercourse During Menstruation: Islamic Ethics and Medical Views.” International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences. Vol. 8, No. 10 (2018), pp. 212-217. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v8-i10/4726
Saheeh International. The Qur’an: English Translation. Jeddah: Saheeh International, 1997.
Shors, Tracey J., and Benedetta Leuner. “Estrogen-Mediated Effects on Depression and Memory Formation in Females.” Journal of Affective Disorders. Vol. 74, No. 1 (2003), pp. 85-96. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0165-0327(02)00428-7
St. John, Victoria. “Premenstrual Syndrome in the Criminal Law.” Auckland University Law Review. Vol. 8, No. 2 (1996), pp. 331-351.
Ṭāliqānī, Maḥmūd. Patrovi az Quran (in Persian). 6 vols. Tehran: Anteshar, 1983.
Taylor, Hugh S., Lubna Pal, and Emre Sell. Speroff’s Clinical Gynecologic Endocrinology and Infertility. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer, 9th ed., 2019.
Tehrani, Jasmine, and Sarnoff Mednick. “Genetic Factors and Criminal Behavior.” Federal Probation. Vol. 64, No. 2 (2000), pp. 24-27.
Uzunçakmak, Tuğba, and Sultan Ayaz Alkaya. “Effect of Aromatherapy on Coping with Premenstrual Syndrome: A Randomized Controlled Trial.” Complementary Therapies in Medicine. Vol. 36 (2018), pp. 63-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctim.2017.11.022
Walsh, William J., Laura B. Glab, and Mary L. Haakenson. “Reduced Violent Behavior Following Biochemical Therapy.” Physiology and Behavior. Vol. 82, No. 5 (2004), pp. 835–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2004.06.023
Yadukul, S., Sumangala C. N., Parinitha, and Suresh B. M. “Pre-Menstrual Syndrome and Crime: A Study in Parappana Agrahara Central Jail, Bengaluru.” Journal of South India Medicolegal Association. Vol. 8, No. 1 (2016), pp. 6-10.
How to Cite
joughi , Abolfazl Alishahi ghaleh, and Sedighe Riahi Rad. 2026. “Premenstrual Syndrome and Criminal Liability in Iranian Law: A Legal Lacuna”. Journal of College of Sharia and Islamic Studies 44 (1). https://doi.org/10.29117/jcsis.2026.0439.
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Articles in English