Hardship Theory under the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG) 1980
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.main##
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.sidebar##
Published
Sep 17, 2026
Copyright Information
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Haya Amer Khalaf
https://orcid.org/0009-0001-8121-0127
Mahmoud Musa Dodeen
https://orcid.org/0009-0007-9920-9929
https://orcid.org/0009-0001-8121-0127
Mahmoud Musa Dodeen
https://orcid.org/0009-0007-9920-9929
Abstract
This study examines whether hardship falls within the scope of Article 79 of the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG), which addresses the concept of an “impediment.” The absence of a specific provision in the Convention governing hardship has left considerable room for divergent approaches in comparative legal scholarship and jurisprudence, with no specialized Arab contributions to this debate. This study therefore seeks to address a gap in Arabic legal literature. It adopts a descriptive-analytical and inductive methodology, with particular emphasis on the various approaches in comparative legal scholarship and case law, as well as the opinions of the CISG Advisory Council.
The study finds that the divergence of views as to whether an impediment encompasses hardship stems from the inadequacy of an interpretive approach adopted by some scholars, which examines the concept of an impediment through the concepts of force majeure and hardship as recognized in national legal systems. The study concludes that an impediment has a distinct legal nature and identity independent of analogous concepts, and that its meaning should therefore be understood within the context of the provisions of the CISG alone, in a manner that serves the objective of unifying the substantive rules governing the international sale of goods in their interpretation and application.
Given the difference between the legal effects stipulated in Article (79) and those of force majeure or hardship in comparative legal systems, the meaning of impediment cannot be confined to either of these two concepts. Impediment, thus, is a flexible term responds to diverse changing circumstances. The study recommends that the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) amend Article (79) to explicitly state the case of hardship, in order to put an end to the differences in the opinions of courts and arbitral awards, which would contribute positively to promoting the idea of unifying interpretation, achieving stability in transactions and legal security.
Metrics
Metrics Loading ...
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.details##
Keywords
ImpedimentChanged circumstancesForce majeureInternational sale of goodsInternational trade law
References
I. Books
Bonnell, Micahel Joachim (ed), A new approach to international commercial contracts: the UNIDROIT principles of international commercial contracts (1st edn., Eleven International Publishing 1994).
Brunner, Christoph, Force Majeure and Hardship under General Contract Principles: Exemption from Non-performance in International Arbitration (Kluwer Law International 2009).
Fawcett, J J, Jomathan Harris & Micheal G Bridge, International Sale of Goods in the Conflict of Laws (Oxford University press 2005).
Dawwās, Amīn. Ittifāqīyat al-Umam al-Muttaḥidah li-sanat 1980 bi-shaʼn ʻUqūd al-bayʻ al-dawlī lil-baḍāʼiʻ fī ḍawʼ Aḥkām al-qaḍāʼ wa-al-fiqh, (in Arabic), al-Jāmiʻah al-ʻArabīyah al-Amrīkīyah, Palestine, 2013.
Felemages, John (ed), An International Approach to the Interpretation of the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International sale Of Goods (1980) as Uniform sales Law (Cambridge University press 2007).
Honnold, John O & Harry M Flechtner, Honnold’s Uniform Law for International sales under the 1980 United Nations convention (5th edn 2021).
Kaiser, Dagmar (ed) & Ulrich (comp), Wiener UN-Kaufrecht (CISG), in J. von Staudingers Kommentar zum Bürgerlichen Gesetzbuch mit Einführungsgesetz und Nebengesetzen: Einführungsgesetz zum Bürgerlichen Gesetzbuche/IPR (2018, 1st edn, German).
Schlechtriem, peter & Ingeborg Schwenzer, Commentary on the UN Convention on the International sale of Goods (CISG) (3rd edn, OUP 2010).
Schlechtriem, peter, Uniform Sales Law: The UN-Convention on contracts for the international sale of Goods (Manz 1986).
Schwenzer, Ingeborg, Yesim M Atamer & peter Bulter (eds), Current issue in the CISG and Arbitration (Eleven International publishing 2014).
Wolfgang, Hanns- Christian salger & Manel Lorenx, International Einheitliches kaufrecht: praktiker-Kommentar und Vertagsgestaltung zum CISG (Heidelberg, 2000).
Zeller, Bruno & Andersen, Camilla (eds) Routledge Handbook on Transnational Commercial Law, (Routledge 2025).
II. Articles
Aksoy, Hüseyin Can. ‘Elephant in the Room: CISG, Hardship, and Uniform Application’ (2023) 34 European Business Law Review 463. https://doi.org/10.54648/eulr2023027.
Atamer, Yeşim M & Wittum, Patrick. ‘Sustainability due diligence in international sales contracts: insights from the CISG’ (2025) 30 Uniform Law Review 287. https://doi.org/10.1093/ulr/unaf038
Atamer, Yesim. ‘Availability of Remedies other than Damages in Case of Exemption According to Art 79 CISG’ In Andrea Büchler & Markus Müller-Chen (eds), Private Law: National - Global - Comparative, Private Law: National - Global – Comparative. Festschrift Für Ingeborg Schwenzer Zum 60. Geburtstag, Berne (Stämpfli, 2011) 83.
Bonell, Michael J. ‘The UNIDROIT principles of International Commercial Contracts and CISG- Alternatives or complementary Instruments?’ (1996) 1 Uniform Law Review 26. https://doi.org/10.1093/ulr/1.1.26
DiMatteo, Larry. ‘contractual Excuse Under the CISG: Impediment, Hardship, and the Excuse Doctrines’ (2015) 27 pace International Law Review 258.
Eggers, Stine. ‘Hardship within the scope of the CISG’ (2020) 26 RETTID Cand.jur.-specialeafhandling, https://iicl.law.pace.edu/sites/default/files/bibliography/afh26-2020.pdf
Ferrari, Franco. ‘Gap – Filling and Interpretation of the CISG: Overview of International Case Law’ (2003) 7 Vindobana Journal of International commercial Law and Arbitration 63.
Flambours, Dionysios. ‘The Doctrine of Impossibility of Performance and Clausla Rebus Sic Stantibus in the 1980 Convention on Contracts for International Sale of Goods and the principles of European Contract Law- A Comparative Analysis’ (2001) 13 pace international Law Review 261.
Flechtner, Harry. ‘Article 79 of the United Nations Convention on contracts for the international sale of Goods (CISG) as Rorschach Test; The Homeward Trend and Exemption for Delivering Non- Conforming Goods’ (2007) 19 pace International Law Review 29.
Flechtner, Harry. ‘Transcript of a workshop on the sales convention: Leading cisg scholars discuss contract formation, validity, excuse for hardship, avoidance, nachfrist, contract interpretation, parol evidence, analogical application, and much more’ (1999) 18 Journal of Law and Commerce 191.
Garro, Alejandro M. ‘Gap filling role of the UNIDROIT principles in International sales law: Some comments on the interplay between the principles and the CISG’ (1994) 69 Tulane Law Review 1149.
Geest, Gerrit. ‘Specific performance, damages and unforeseen contingencies in the draft common frame of reference’ in Economic Analysis of the DCFR: The work of the Economic Impact Group within CoPECL (Sellier European Law Publishers GmbH 2010) 123.
Hocine, Farida. ‘Une exception au principe pacta sunt servanda: la théorie de l’imprévision’ (2019) 30 Journal of Human science, 23.
Ishida, Yasutoshi. ‘CISG Article 79: Exemption of performance and Adaptation of contract through Interpretation of Reasonable’ (2018) 13 pace international Law Review 331.
keily, Troy. ‘Harmonization and the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International sale of Goods’ (2003) Nordic Journal of Commercial Law 5.
Kovač, Mitja. ‘Duty to renegotiate in international commercial law and uncontemplated behavioural effects’ (2020) 27 Maastricht Journal of European and Comparative Law 20.
Kryla-Cudna, Katarzyna. ‘Internationality Overreach in the Interpretation of Uniform Private Law Conventions: The Contra Proferentem Rule and the CISG’ (2025) 74, International and Comparative Law Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020589325100821
Kuster, David & Anderden Camilla B.,’Hardly Room for Hardship- A Functional Review of Article 79 of the CISG’ (2016) 35 Journal of Law and commerce 1. https://doi.org/10.5195/jlc.2016.116
Magnus, Ulrich. ‘Dis allegemeinen Grundsätze im UN-Kaufrecht’ (1995) 59 RabelsZ 117.
Maskow, Dietrich,’Hardship and force majeure’ (1992) 40 The American Journal of comparative Law 657.
Makhlūf, Aḥmad. "Legal effects of coronavirus pandemic on the execution of international commercial contracts" (in Arabic), Majallat al-Idārah al-ʻĀmmah, vol. 61, no. 2 (2021).
Mazzocano, Peter. ‘The Treatment of CISG Article 79 in German courts: Halting the Homeward Trend’ (2012) 2 Nordic Journal of commercial Law 1. https://doi.org/10.5278/ojs.njcl.v0i2.3010
Mutai, Vincent K. ‘Regulation of Interest in International Contracts Under UN Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods’ (2019) 1 African Journal of Commercial Law 77.
Nicholas, Barry. ‘Force Majeure and Frustration’ (1979) 27 American Journal of comparative Law 231.
Oral, Tuğce. ‘Exemption from Liability According to Art.79 of the convention on international sale of Goods (CISG)’ (2019) 9 Tribuna Juridică 646.
Petsche, Markus. ‘Hardship under the UN Convention on the International sale of Goods (CISG)’ (2015) 19 Vindobona Journal of International Commercial Law and Arbitration 147.
Pirzzi, Roberto. ‘The effect of changing circumstance In International commercial contracts: The Scaform case’ (2012) 16 Vindobona Journal of International commercial Law and Arbitration 207.
Rimke ,Joern. ‘Force Majeure and Hardship in International Trade Practice with Specific Regard to the CISG and the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts’ in pace Review of the convention on contracts for the international sale of Goods (Kluwer Law International 1999-2000) 219.
Saidov, Djakhongir. ‘Methods of limiting damages under the Vienna convention on contracts for the international sale of goods’ (2002) 12 pace International Law Review 239.
Salma, Shani. ‘pragmatic Responses to Interpretive Impediments: Article 7 of the CISG, an Inter-American Application’ (2006) 38 University of Miami Inter-American Law Review 241.
Sater, Scott. ‘Overcome by Hardship: The Inapplicability of the UNIDROIT principles’ Hardship Provision to CISG’ (1998) 12 Florida Journal of International Law 257.
Schwenzer Ingeborg. ‘Unidroit principles of International Commercial contracts 2010’ in Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International sales of Goods (3rd edn, OUP 2016).
Schwenzer, Ingeborg. ‘Force Majeure and Hardship in international sales contracts’ (2008) 39 Victoria University of wellington Law Review 709. https://doi.org/10.26686/vuwlr.v39i4.5487
Tallon, Denis & Kovar, Robert. ‘Application of community Law in France in 1970’, (1972) 9 common Market Law Review 329.
Tallon, Georges. ‘Imprévision’ in International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, Vol. III (Mohr siebeck 1986) 594.
Veneziano, Anna. ‘UNIDROIT Principles and CISG: Change of Circumstances and Duty to Renegotiate according to the Belgian Supreme Court’ (2010) 15 (1) Uniform Law Review 146.
Zeller Bruno. ‘The UN Convention on Contracts for the International sale of Goods (CISG)- A Leap Forward towards Unified International Sales Law’ (2000) 12 pace International Law Review 79.
III. Theses
Daniel, Jason. An Investigation into the Relationship Between the Unidroit Principles of International Commercial Contracts (UPICC) and the Un Convention on the International Sale of Goods (CISG) (Master’s thesis) University of Johannesburg, South Africa, 2017. https://hdl.handle.net/10210/236628
Klepac, Lovro. The Availability of a Hardship Defense under the UN Convention on Contract for the International sale of Goods (Master’s thesis) Central European University, Budapest, 2017. www.etd.ceu.edu
Momberg, Uribe. The Effect of a Change of circumstance on the Binding Force of Contracts (PhD thesis) Utercht University, Netherlands, 1972. http://hdl.handle.net/1874/204792
Yaḥyá, Ibrāhīm. Dawr Naẓarīyat al-mashaqqah (hardship) fī ḥifẓ Tawāzun al-ʻIqd fī al-Tijārah al-Dawlīyah, (in Arabic). (Master’s thesis), al-Jāmiʻah al-ʻArabīyah al-Amrīkīyah, Palestine, 2017.
IV. Reports, Working Papers & Opinions
CISG-AC Opinion No 7, ‘Exemption of Liability for Damages under Article 79 of the CISG’ (Rapporteur: Alejandro M Garro, adopted at the 11th meeting in wuhan, 12 October 2007).
CISG- AC Opinion No 20, ‘Hardship under CISG’ (Rapporteur: Edgardo Muñoz, adopted 2-5 February 2020, Puerto Vallarta, Mexico).
CISG- AC Opinion No 21, ‘Delivery of substitute Goods and Repair under the CISG’, (Rapporteurs: Ingeborg Schwenzer and Ilka H Beiml, 3-4 February 2020).
UNCITRAL, ‘Outline of the CISG (The UNCITRAL Thesaurus)’ (UN Doc A/CN.9/SER.C/ GUIDE/1 ,12 September 1995).
V. Case law
Arbitration Court attached to the Hungarian Chamber of Commerce and Industry case No. VB/96074 (10 December 1996) https://www.unilex.info/cisg/case/424
Iron molybdenum case (Oberlandesgericht Hamburg, Case No 1 U 167/95, 28 February 1997) cisg-online.org/files/cases/6235/translationFile/261_22831831.pdf
Nuova Fucinati SpA v Foudmetall International AB, Tribunale di Monza (14 January 1993) Case No 4267/88, https://cisgonline.org/files/cases/6082/fullTextFile/102_73321989.pdf
Scafom International BV v Larraine Tubes SAS, Belgian supreme Court (2009) https://cisg-online.org/files/cases/6633/fullTextFile/694_82136276.pdf
*********************************************************************
العربية
دواس، أمين. اتفاقية الأمم المتحدة لسنة 1980 بشأن عقود البيع الدولي للبضائع في ضوء أحكام القضاء والفقه، الجامعة العربية الأمريكية، فلسطين، 2013.
مخلوف، أحمد. «الآثار القانونية لجائحة كورونا (كوفيد–19) على تنفيذ عقود التجارة الدولية»، مجلة الإدارة العامة، مج61، عدد خاص (2021).
يحيى، إبراهيم. دور نظرية المشقة (hardship) في حفظ توازن العقد في التجارة الدولية، [رسالة ماجستير]، الجامعة العربية الأمريكية، فلسطين، 2017.
Bonnell, Micahel Joachim (ed), A new approach to international commercial contracts: the UNIDROIT principles of international commercial contracts (1st edn., Eleven International Publishing 1994).
Brunner, Christoph, Force Majeure and Hardship under General Contract Principles: Exemption from Non-performance in International Arbitration (Kluwer Law International 2009).
Fawcett, J J, Jomathan Harris & Micheal G Bridge, International Sale of Goods in the Conflict of Laws (Oxford University press 2005).
Dawwās, Amīn. Ittifāqīyat al-Umam al-Muttaḥidah li-sanat 1980 bi-shaʼn ʻUqūd al-bayʻ al-dawlī lil-baḍāʼiʻ fī ḍawʼ Aḥkām al-qaḍāʼ wa-al-fiqh, (in Arabic), al-Jāmiʻah al-ʻArabīyah al-Amrīkīyah, Palestine, 2013.
Felemages, John (ed), An International Approach to the Interpretation of the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International sale Of Goods (1980) as Uniform sales Law (Cambridge University press 2007).
Honnold, John O & Harry M Flechtner, Honnold’s Uniform Law for International sales under the 1980 United Nations convention (5th edn 2021).
Kaiser, Dagmar (ed) & Ulrich (comp), Wiener UN-Kaufrecht (CISG), in J. von Staudingers Kommentar zum Bürgerlichen Gesetzbuch mit Einführungsgesetz und Nebengesetzen: Einführungsgesetz zum Bürgerlichen Gesetzbuche/IPR (2018, 1st edn, German).
Schlechtriem, peter & Ingeborg Schwenzer, Commentary on the UN Convention on the International sale of Goods (CISG) (3rd edn, OUP 2010).
Schlechtriem, peter, Uniform Sales Law: The UN-Convention on contracts for the international sale of Goods (Manz 1986).
Schwenzer, Ingeborg, Yesim M Atamer & peter Bulter (eds), Current issue in the CISG and Arbitration (Eleven International publishing 2014).
Wolfgang, Hanns- Christian salger & Manel Lorenx, International Einheitliches kaufrecht: praktiker-Kommentar und Vertagsgestaltung zum CISG (Heidelberg, 2000).
Zeller, Bruno & Andersen, Camilla (eds) Routledge Handbook on Transnational Commercial Law, (Routledge 2025).
II. Articles
Aksoy, Hüseyin Can. ‘Elephant in the Room: CISG, Hardship, and Uniform Application’ (2023) 34 European Business Law Review 463. https://doi.org/10.54648/eulr2023027.
Atamer, Yeşim M & Wittum, Patrick. ‘Sustainability due diligence in international sales contracts: insights from the CISG’ (2025) 30 Uniform Law Review 287. https://doi.org/10.1093/ulr/unaf038
Atamer, Yesim. ‘Availability of Remedies other than Damages in Case of Exemption According to Art 79 CISG’ In Andrea Büchler & Markus Müller-Chen (eds), Private Law: National - Global - Comparative, Private Law: National - Global – Comparative. Festschrift Für Ingeborg Schwenzer Zum 60. Geburtstag, Berne (Stämpfli, 2011) 83.
Bonell, Michael J. ‘The UNIDROIT principles of International Commercial Contracts and CISG- Alternatives or complementary Instruments?’ (1996) 1 Uniform Law Review 26. https://doi.org/10.1093/ulr/1.1.26
DiMatteo, Larry. ‘contractual Excuse Under the CISG: Impediment, Hardship, and the Excuse Doctrines’ (2015) 27 pace International Law Review 258.
Eggers, Stine. ‘Hardship within the scope of the CISG’ (2020) 26 RETTID Cand.jur.-specialeafhandling, https://iicl.law.pace.edu/sites/default/files/bibliography/afh26-2020.pdf
Ferrari, Franco. ‘Gap – Filling and Interpretation of the CISG: Overview of International Case Law’ (2003) 7 Vindobana Journal of International commercial Law and Arbitration 63.
Flambours, Dionysios. ‘The Doctrine of Impossibility of Performance and Clausla Rebus Sic Stantibus in the 1980 Convention on Contracts for International Sale of Goods and the principles of European Contract Law- A Comparative Analysis’ (2001) 13 pace international Law Review 261.
Flechtner, Harry. ‘Article 79 of the United Nations Convention on contracts for the international sale of Goods (CISG) as Rorschach Test; The Homeward Trend and Exemption for Delivering Non- Conforming Goods’ (2007) 19 pace International Law Review 29.
Flechtner, Harry. ‘Transcript of a workshop on the sales convention: Leading cisg scholars discuss contract formation, validity, excuse for hardship, avoidance, nachfrist, contract interpretation, parol evidence, analogical application, and much more’ (1999) 18 Journal of Law and Commerce 191.
Garro, Alejandro M. ‘Gap filling role of the UNIDROIT principles in International sales law: Some comments on the interplay between the principles and the CISG’ (1994) 69 Tulane Law Review 1149.
Geest, Gerrit. ‘Specific performance, damages and unforeseen contingencies in the draft common frame of reference’ in Economic Analysis of the DCFR: The work of the Economic Impact Group within CoPECL (Sellier European Law Publishers GmbH 2010) 123.
Hocine, Farida. ‘Une exception au principe pacta sunt servanda: la théorie de l’imprévision’ (2019) 30 Journal of Human science, 23.
Ishida, Yasutoshi. ‘CISG Article 79: Exemption of performance and Adaptation of contract through Interpretation of Reasonable’ (2018) 13 pace international Law Review 331.
keily, Troy. ‘Harmonization and the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International sale of Goods’ (2003) Nordic Journal of Commercial Law 5.
Kovač, Mitja. ‘Duty to renegotiate in international commercial law and uncontemplated behavioural effects’ (2020) 27 Maastricht Journal of European and Comparative Law 20.
Kryla-Cudna, Katarzyna. ‘Internationality Overreach in the Interpretation of Uniform Private Law Conventions: The Contra Proferentem Rule and the CISG’ (2025) 74, International and Comparative Law Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020589325100821
Kuster, David & Anderden Camilla B.,’Hardly Room for Hardship- A Functional Review of Article 79 of the CISG’ (2016) 35 Journal of Law and commerce 1. https://doi.org/10.5195/jlc.2016.116
Magnus, Ulrich. ‘Dis allegemeinen Grundsätze im UN-Kaufrecht’ (1995) 59 RabelsZ 117.
Maskow, Dietrich,’Hardship and force majeure’ (1992) 40 The American Journal of comparative Law 657.
Makhlūf, Aḥmad. "Legal effects of coronavirus pandemic on the execution of international commercial contracts" (in Arabic), Majallat al-Idārah al-ʻĀmmah, vol. 61, no. 2 (2021).
Mazzocano, Peter. ‘The Treatment of CISG Article 79 in German courts: Halting the Homeward Trend’ (2012) 2 Nordic Journal of commercial Law 1. https://doi.org/10.5278/ojs.njcl.v0i2.3010
Mutai, Vincent K. ‘Regulation of Interest in International Contracts Under UN Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods’ (2019) 1 African Journal of Commercial Law 77.
Nicholas, Barry. ‘Force Majeure and Frustration’ (1979) 27 American Journal of comparative Law 231.
Oral, Tuğce. ‘Exemption from Liability According to Art.79 of the convention on international sale of Goods (CISG)’ (2019) 9 Tribuna Juridică 646.
Petsche, Markus. ‘Hardship under the UN Convention on the International sale of Goods (CISG)’ (2015) 19 Vindobona Journal of International Commercial Law and Arbitration 147.
Pirzzi, Roberto. ‘The effect of changing circumstance In International commercial contracts: The Scaform case’ (2012) 16 Vindobona Journal of International commercial Law and Arbitration 207.
Rimke ,Joern. ‘Force Majeure and Hardship in International Trade Practice with Specific Regard to the CISG and the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts’ in pace Review of the convention on contracts for the international sale of Goods (Kluwer Law International 1999-2000) 219.
Saidov, Djakhongir. ‘Methods of limiting damages under the Vienna convention on contracts for the international sale of goods’ (2002) 12 pace International Law Review 239.
Salma, Shani. ‘pragmatic Responses to Interpretive Impediments: Article 7 of the CISG, an Inter-American Application’ (2006) 38 University of Miami Inter-American Law Review 241.
Sater, Scott. ‘Overcome by Hardship: The Inapplicability of the UNIDROIT principles’ Hardship Provision to CISG’ (1998) 12 Florida Journal of International Law 257.
Schwenzer Ingeborg. ‘Unidroit principles of International Commercial contracts 2010’ in Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International sales of Goods (3rd edn, OUP 2016).
Schwenzer, Ingeborg. ‘Force Majeure and Hardship in international sales contracts’ (2008) 39 Victoria University of wellington Law Review 709. https://doi.org/10.26686/vuwlr.v39i4.5487
Tallon, Denis & Kovar, Robert. ‘Application of community Law in France in 1970’, (1972) 9 common Market Law Review 329.
Tallon, Georges. ‘Imprévision’ in International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, Vol. III (Mohr siebeck 1986) 594.
Veneziano, Anna. ‘UNIDROIT Principles and CISG: Change of Circumstances and Duty to Renegotiate according to the Belgian Supreme Court’ (2010) 15 (1) Uniform Law Review 146.
Zeller Bruno. ‘The UN Convention on Contracts for the International sale of Goods (CISG)- A Leap Forward towards Unified International Sales Law’ (2000) 12 pace International Law Review 79.
III. Theses
Daniel, Jason. An Investigation into the Relationship Between the Unidroit Principles of International Commercial Contracts (UPICC) and the Un Convention on the International Sale of Goods (CISG) (Master’s thesis) University of Johannesburg, South Africa, 2017. https://hdl.handle.net/10210/236628
Klepac, Lovro. The Availability of a Hardship Defense under the UN Convention on Contract for the International sale of Goods (Master’s thesis) Central European University, Budapest, 2017. www.etd.ceu.edu
Momberg, Uribe. The Effect of a Change of circumstance on the Binding Force of Contracts (PhD thesis) Utercht University, Netherlands, 1972. http://hdl.handle.net/1874/204792
Yaḥyá, Ibrāhīm. Dawr Naẓarīyat al-mashaqqah (hardship) fī ḥifẓ Tawāzun al-ʻIqd fī al-Tijārah al-Dawlīyah, (in Arabic). (Master’s thesis), al-Jāmiʻah al-ʻArabīyah al-Amrīkīyah, Palestine, 2017.
IV. Reports, Working Papers & Opinions
CISG-AC Opinion No 7, ‘Exemption of Liability for Damages under Article 79 of the CISG’ (Rapporteur: Alejandro M Garro, adopted at the 11th meeting in wuhan, 12 October 2007).
CISG- AC Opinion No 20, ‘Hardship under CISG’ (Rapporteur: Edgardo Muñoz, adopted 2-5 February 2020, Puerto Vallarta, Mexico).
CISG- AC Opinion No 21, ‘Delivery of substitute Goods and Repair under the CISG’, (Rapporteurs: Ingeborg Schwenzer and Ilka H Beiml, 3-4 February 2020).
UNCITRAL, ‘Outline of the CISG (The UNCITRAL Thesaurus)’ (UN Doc A/CN.9/SER.C/ GUIDE/1 ,12 September 1995).
V. Case law
Arbitration Court attached to the Hungarian Chamber of Commerce and Industry case No. VB/96074 (10 December 1996) https://www.unilex.info/cisg/case/424
Iron molybdenum case (Oberlandesgericht Hamburg, Case No 1 U 167/95, 28 February 1997) cisg-online.org/files/cases/6235/translationFile/261_22831831.pdf
Nuova Fucinati SpA v Foudmetall International AB, Tribunale di Monza (14 January 1993) Case No 4267/88, https://cisgonline.org/files/cases/6082/fullTextFile/102_73321989.pdf
Scafom International BV v Larraine Tubes SAS, Belgian supreme Court (2009) https://cisg-online.org/files/cases/6633/fullTextFile/694_82136276.pdf
*********************************************************************
العربية
دواس، أمين. اتفاقية الأمم المتحدة لسنة 1980 بشأن عقود البيع الدولي للبضائع في ضوء أحكام القضاء والفقه، الجامعة العربية الأمريكية، فلسطين، 2013.
مخلوف، أحمد. «الآثار القانونية لجائحة كورونا (كوفيد–19) على تنفيذ عقود التجارة الدولية»، مجلة الإدارة العامة، مج61، عدد خاص (2021).
يحيى، إبراهيم. دور نظرية المشقة (hardship) في حفظ توازن العقد في التجارة الدولية، [رسالة ماجستير]، الجامعة العربية الأمريكية، فلسطين، 2017.
How to Cite
Khalaf , H. A. ., & Dodeen, M. M. . (2026). Hardship Theory under the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG) 1980. International Review of Law, 15(2). https://doi.org/10.29117/irl.2026.0381
Section
Articles in Arabic