Energy Efficiency and Conservation: A Comparative Analysis of Regulatory Approaches Among GCC Countries
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Published
May 12, 2026
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Mayasa Bakhit Al-Meqareh
https://orcid.org/0009-0001-0866-8289
https://orcid.org/0009-0001-0866-8289
Abstract
This paper delves into an examination of the energy efficiency and conservation policies among the states of the Gulf Cooperation Council, otherwise known as the GCC; it engages in a critical and comparative analysis of the regulatory approaches of these states, ultimately suggesting pathways for future improvement. Confronted by elevated energy consumption on a per capita basis and attendant environmental challenges that result from such high energy use, GCC states have grappled with the ongoing challenges of progressively improving the energy efficiency in their respective countries and increasing conservation efforts, placing these two at the forefront of the policy priorities of GCC states. This study aims to critically examine the diverse regulatory frameworks implemented across Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates (including measures such as building codes, appliance performance standards, and subsidy reforms), while highlighting the inherent fragmentation among these approaches. In the end, the article argues that a unified, regional framework seems necessary and could significantly improve the effectiveness of these fragmented policies. A coordinated regulatory approach that is driven and informed by data would allow GCC countries to not only make better use of energy and boost sustainability but also concurrently strengthen the role of GCC states on the global stage of energy policymaking as an example of a regional effort towards unified environmental regulation.
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Keywords
Energy efficiencyGulf Cooperation CouncilRegulatory frameworksEnergy policy
References
I. Articles
Al-Badi A and AlMubarak I, 'Growing energy demand in the GCC countries' (2019) 26 Arab Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 488.
Al-Ghamdi S and others, 'Energy-efficient strategies for net-zero buildings in the UAE: A climate-resilient blueprint' (2025) 25 Energy Conversion and Management: X 101215.
Al-Maamary HMS, Kazem HA and Chaichan MT, 'Changing the energy profile of the GCC states: A review' (2016) 11 Int J of Applied Engineering Research 1981.
Al-Maamary HMS and others, 'Energy transition strategies in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries' (2024) 53 Energy Strategy Reviews 101512.
Al-Masri RA and Alshitawi MS, 'Electricity consumption indicators and energy efficiency in residential buildings in GCC countries: Extensive review' (2022) 255 Energy and Buildings 111664.
Al-Mulali U and Sab CN, 'Energy Efficiency and Competitiveness in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC): Empirical Evidence from Panel Data' (2021) 69 Economic Analysis and Policy 245.
Al-Rifai M and others, 'A review of building envelope retrofitting methods for improving energy efficiency, aesthetic, and indoor environmental quality' (2025) 16 Energy Nexus 100407.
Al-shammari AAS, Muneer S and Tripathi A, 'Do Information Communication Technology and Economic Development Impact Environmental Degradation? Evidence from the GCC Countries' (2022) 10 Frontiers in Environmental Science 875932.
Alalenan S and others, 'Measuring underlying energy efficiency in the GCC countries using a newly constructed dataset' (2019) 3 Energy Transitions 31.
Alawadh T and Al Zahmi S, 'Sustainable energy policies, cities, and buildings in Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)' in ZEMCH Network (ed), ZEMCH 2021 - 8th Zero Energy Mass Custom Home International Conference Proceedings (2021).
AlKhars M and others, 'A Systematic Review of the Relationship Between Energy Consumption and Economic Growth in GCC Countries' (2020) 12 Sustainability 3845.
Almasri RA and Narayan S, 'A Recent Review of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Region' (2021) 18 International Journal of Green Energy 1441.
Almomani A and others, 'Critical review on the energy retrofitting trends in residential buildings of Arab Mashreq and Maghreb countries' (2024) 14 Buildings 338.
Bousrih J and Elhaj M, 'Energy transition in the GCC: From oil giants to green leaders?' (2025) 18 Energies 3460.
Cabeza LF, Chafer M and Mata E, 'Comparative analysis of Web of Science and Scopus on the energy efficiency and climate impact of buildings' (2020) 13 Energies 409.
Chaabouni I and Abid I, 'Key drivers of energy consumption in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries' (2025) 15 Engineering, Technology & Applied Science Research 10233.
Elhaj M, 'Do energy efficiency and technology boost sustainable environment: Evidence from GCC countries' (2024) 3 Journal of Ecohumanism 2545.
Kazem HA and Chaichan MT, 'The impact of climate change on energy consumption in the GCC countries' (2017) 78 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 456.
Khan MA and others, 'Governance structures and public acceptance of energy efficiency policies in the Middle East' (2022) 84 Energy Research & Social Science 102367.
Khondaker AN and others, 'Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Energy Sector in the United Arab Emirates: Current and Future Scenarios' (2016) 55 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 97.
Krarti M and Dubey K, 'Energy Efficiency Strategies for Sustainable Development in the Gulf Cooperation Council' (2018) 91 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 1143.
Obaideen K and others, 'On the contribution of solar energy to sustainable development goals: Case study on Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Solar Park' (2021) 12 International Journal of Thermofluids 100123.
Osman M, Gachino G and Hoque A, 'Electricity Consumption and Economic Growth in the GCC Countries: Panel Data Analysis' (2016) 98 Energy Policy 318.
Praveen RP, 'An insight to the energy policy of GCC countries to meet renewable energy targets of 2030' (2020) 131 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 109968.
Reiche D, 'Energy policies of Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries: An overview' (2010) 35 Energy 2525.
II. Legislation
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Energy Sector Transformation (Saudi Vision 2030, 2021).
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Saudi Vision 2030: Progress and Achievements Report (Council of Economic and Development Affairs 2021).
Saudi Building Code National Committee, Saudi Energy Conservation Code: SBC 601-CR-18 (Saudi Standards, Metrology and Quality Organization 2018).
UAE Government, UAE Energy Strategy 2050: Balancing Energy Sources (2017).
III. Encyclopedias, Manuals, and Handbooks
Food and Agriculture Organization, Agricultural Water Use Efficiency in Arid Regions (FAO 2022).
UNECE, Energy Efficiency in Buildings in the UNECE Region (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe 2016).
UNESCWA, Energy Efficiency in Kuwaiti Buildings (United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia 2019).
UNIDO, Industrial Development Report 2019: Industrialization in a Digital Age (United Nations Industrial Development Organization 2019).
IV. Websites
Climate Watch, 'Kuwait Climate Change Data Emissions and Policies' (2025). https://www.climatewatchdata.org/countries/KWT accessed 27 April 2025.
IW Glass, 'The Price of a Meter of Glass for Facades in Riyadh and the Factors Affecting It' (2024). https://iwglass.net/en/the-price-of-a-meter-of-glass-for-facades-in-riyadh/ accessed 27 April 2025.
Lee Company, 'Retrofitting Challenges in the Gulf Region' (2024).
V. Other Sources
Al-Sarihi A, 'Energy transition in the Gulf: Best practices and limitations' (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace 2025) https://carnegieendowment.org accessed 27 April 2025.
Dubey K, 'Energy Efficiency Policies and Initiatives in the GCC: Progress and Challenges' (UNECE 2016).
Dubey K and Krarti M, 'An Evaluation of High Energy Performance Residential Buildings in Bahrain' (KAPSARC Discussion Paper ks-2017-dp16, 2017).
El-Katiri L and Fattouh B, 'A Brief Political Economy of Energy Subsidies in the Middle East and North Africa' (Oxford Institute for Energy Studies 2017).
Esam A, 'Will GCC Countries Be Economies of the Future or Old Oil Ghost Countries?' (2023) https://blog.oxfordeconomics.com accessed 16 January 2023.
ESCWA and KAPSARC, Unlocking Energy Efficiency in the GCC Built Environment (Regulatory Policy Standard 2024).
GCC Statistical Center, 2024 Report on Measuring General Trends of the Sustainable Development Goals Indicators for GCC Countries (2025).
GCC-STAT, GCC Energy Indicators Report (Gulf Cooperation Council Statistical Centre 2023).
Global Carbon Council, GCC 2.0 Environment and Social Safeguard Standard (V4.1) (Regulatory Standard 2025).
Gulf Research Center, 'Recent GCC Joint Environmental Initiatives: Waste-to-Energy Projects, Water Task Forces, and Eco-City Knowledge Hubs ' (2025).
Hertog S and Luciani G, 'Energy and Sustainability Policies in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)' (Oxford Energy Forum 2009).
IMF, Fiscal Reforms and Energy Subsidies in the GCC (International Monetary Fund 2015).
International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook (2023).
IRENA, Renewable Energy Integration in the GCC (International Renewable Energy Agency 2022).
Japan International Cooperation Agency, Master Plan for Energy Conservation and Efficiency in the Sultanate of Oman (JICA 2013).
J-Stage, 'Comparative Analysis of Retrofit Strategies for Residential Building Envelopes to Advance Greener Energy Optimization Standards in Abu Dhabi' (Japan Science and Technology Agency 2025).
KAPSARC, Multiple Benefits of Building Energy Efficiency in Saudi Arabia (King Abdullah Petroleum Studies and Research Center 2019).
Leal-Arcas R, 'Energy Policy of Kuwait: The Road to Decarbonization' (Queen Mary Law Research Paper No 02/2025, 2025).
Lihidheb K, Missaoui R and Shariff J, 'Innovative Energy Efficiency Instruments for the MENA Region' (2020) https://www.giz.de/en/downloads/giz2020-en-innovative-energy-efficiency-instruments.pdf accessed 27 April 2025.
Mills RM, 'Energy transitions in the Gulf: Realities, risks, and the road ahead' (ORF Issue Brief No 829, Observer Research Foundation 2025).
Roland Berger, GCC Energy Subsidy Survey (Roland Berger Strategy Consultants 2013).
SASO, ESMA and G-Mark, 'Regulatory Tightening in the GCC: New Energy Label Norms and Compliance Risks' (Law/Regulation Analysis 2025).
Al-Badi A and AlMubarak I, 'Growing energy demand in the GCC countries' (2019) 26 Arab Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 488.
Al-Ghamdi S and others, 'Energy-efficient strategies for net-zero buildings in the UAE: A climate-resilient blueprint' (2025) 25 Energy Conversion and Management: X 101215.
Al-Maamary HMS, Kazem HA and Chaichan MT, 'Changing the energy profile of the GCC states: A review' (2016) 11 Int J of Applied Engineering Research 1981.
Al-Maamary HMS and others, 'Energy transition strategies in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries' (2024) 53 Energy Strategy Reviews 101512.
Al-Masri RA and Alshitawi MS, 'Electricity consumption indicators and energy efficiency in residential buildings in GCC countries: Extensive review' (2022) 255 Energy and Buildings 111664.
Al-Mulali U and Sab CN, 'Energy Efficiency and Competitiveness in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC): Empirical Evidence from Panel Data' (2021) 69 Economic Analysis and Policy 245.
Al-Rifai M and others, 'A review of building envelope retrofitting methods for improving energy efficiency, aesthetic, and indoor environmental quality' (2025) 16 Energy Nexus 100407.
Al-shammari AAS, Muneer S and Tripathi A, 'Do Information Communication Technology and Economic Development Impact Environmental Degradation? Evidence from the GCC Countries' (2022) 10 Frontiers in Environmental Science 875932.
Alalenan S and others, 'Measuring underlying energy efficiency in the GCC countries using a newly constructed dataset' (2019) 3 Energy Transitions 31.
Alawadh T and Al Zahmi S, 'Sustainable energy policies, cities, and buildings in Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)' in ZEMCH Network (ed), ZEMCH 2021 - 8th Zero Energy Mass Custom Home International Conference Proceedings (2021).
AlKhars M and others, 'A Systematic Review of the Relationship Between Energy Consumption and Economic Growth in GCC Countries' (2020) 12 Sustainability 3845.
Almasri RA and Narayan S, 'A Recent Review of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Region' (2021) 18 International Journal of Green Energy 1441.
Almomani A and others, 'Critical review on the energy retrofitting trends in residential buildings of Arab Mashreq and Maghreb countries' (2024) 14 Buildings 338.
Bousrih J and Elhaj M, 'Energy transition in the GCC: From oil giants to green leaders?' (2025) 18 Energies 3460.
Cabeza LF, Chafer M and Mata E, 'Comparative analysis of Web of Science and Scopus on the energy efficiency and climate impact of buildings' (2020) 13 Energies 409.
Chaabouni I and Abid I, 'Key drivers of energy consumption in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries' (2025) 15 Engineering, Technology & Applied Science Research 10233.
Elhaj M, 'Do energy efficiency and technology boost sustainable environment: Evidence from GCC countries' (2024) 3 Journal of Ecohumanism 2545.
Kazem HA and Chaichan MT, 'The impact of climate change on energy consumption in the GCC countries' (2017) 78 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 456.
Khan MA and others, 'Governance structures and public acceptance of energy efficiency policies in the Middle East' (2022) 84 Energy Research & Social Science 102367.
Khondaker AN and others, 'Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Energy Sector in the United Arab Emirates: Current and Future Scenarios' (2016) 55 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 97.
Krarti M and Dubey K, 'Energy Efficiency Strategies for Sustainable Development in the Gulf Cooperation Council' (2018) 91 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 1143.
Obaideen K and others, 'On the contribution of solar energy to sustainable development goals: Case study on Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Solar Park' (2021) 12 International Journal of Thermofluids 100123.
Osman M, Gachino G and Hoque A, 'Electricity Consumption and Economic Growth in the GCC Countries: Panel Data Analysis' (2016) 98 Energy Policy 318.
Praveen RP, 'An insight to the energy policy of GCC countries to meet renewable energy targets of 2030' (2020) 131 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 109968.
Reiche D, 'Energy policies of Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries: An overview' (2010) 35 Energy 2525.
II. Legislation
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Energy Sector Transformation (Saudi Vision 2030, 2021).
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Saudi Vision 2030: Progress and Achievements Report (Council of Economic and Development Affairs 2021).
Saudi Building Code National Committee, Saudi Energy Conservation Code: SBC 601-CR-18 (Saudi Standards, Metrology and Quality Organization 2018).
UAE Government, UAE Energy Strategy 2050: Balancing Energy Sources (2017).
III. Encyclopedias, Manuals, and Handbooks
Food and Agriculture Organization, Agricultural Water Use Efficiency in Arid Regions (FAO 2022).
UNECE, Energy Efficiency in Buildings in the UNECE Region (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe 2016).
UNESCWA, Energy Efficiency in Kuwaiti Buildings (United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia 2019).
UNIDO, Industrial Development Report 2019: Industrialization in a Digital Age (United Nations Industrial Development Organization 2019).
IV. Websites
Climate Watch, 'Kuwait Climate Change Data Emissions and Policies' (2025). https://www.climatewatchdata.org/countries/KWT accessed 27 April 2025.
IW Glass, 'The Price of a Meter of Glass for Facades in Riyadh and the Factors Affecting It' (2024). https://iwglass.net/en/the-price-of-a-meter-of-glass-for-facades-in-riyadh/ accessed 27 April 2025.
Lee Company, 'Retrofitting Challenges in the Gulf Region' (2024).
V. Other Sources
Al-Sarihi A, 'Energy transition in the Gulf: Best practices and limitations' (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace 2025) https://carnegieendowment.org accessed 27 April 2025.
Dubey K, 'Energy Efficiency Policies and Initiatives in the GCC: Progress and Challenges' (UNECE 2016).
Dubey K and Krarti M, 'An Evaluation of High Energy Performance Residential Buildings in Bahrain' (KAPSARC Discussion Paper ks-2017-dp16, 2017).
El-Katiri L and Fattouh B, 'A Brief Political Economy of Energy Subsidies in the Middle East and North Africa' (Oxford Institute for Energy Studies 2017).
Esam A, 'Will GCC Countries Be Economies of the Future or Old Oil Ghost Countries?' (2023) https://blog.oxfordeconomics.com accessed 16 January 2023.
ESCWA and KAPSARC, Unlocking Energy Efficiency in the GCC Built Environment (Regulatory Policy Standard 2024).
GCC Statistical Center, 2024 Report on Measuring General Trends of the Sustainable Development Goals Indicators for GCC Countries (2025).
GCC-STAT, GCC Energy Indicators Report (Gulf Cooperation Council Statistical Centre 2023).
Global Carbon Council, GCC 2.0 Environment and Social Safeguard Standard (V4.1) (Regulatory Standard 2025).
Gulf Research Center, 'Recent GCC Joint Environmental Initiatives: Waste-to-Energy Projects, Water Task Forces, and Eco-City Knowledge Hubs ' (2025).
Hertog S and Luciani G, 'Energy and Sustainability Policies in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)' (Oxford Energy Forum 2009).
IMF, Fiscal Reforms and Energy Subsidies in the GCC (International Monetary Fund 2015).
International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook (2023).
IRENA, Renewable Energy Integration in the GCC (International Renewable Energy Agency 2022).
Japan International Cooperation Agency, Master Plan for Energy Conservation and Efficiency in the Sultanate of Oman (JICA 2013).
J-Stage, 'Comparative Analysis of Retrofit Strategies for Residential Building Envelopes to Advance Greener Energy Optimization Standards in Abu Dhabi' (Japan Science and Technology Agency 2025).
KAPSARC, Multiple Benefits of Building Energy Efficiency in Saudi Arabia (King Abdullah Petroleum Studies and Research Center 2019).
Leal-Arcas R, 'Energy Policy of Kuwait: The Road to Decarbonization' (Queen Mary Law Research Paper No 02/2025, 2025).
Lihidheb K, Missaoui R and Shariff J, 'Innovative Energy Efficiency Instruments for the MENA Region' (2020) https://www.giz.de/en/downloads/giz2020-en-innovative-energy-efficiency-instruments.pdf accessed 27 April 2025.
Mills RM, 'Energy transitions in the Gulf: Realities, risks, and the road ahead' (ORF Issue Brief No 829, Observer Research Foundation 2025).
Roland Berger, GCC Energy Subsidy Survey (Roland Berger Strategy Consultants 2013).
SASO, ESMA and G-Mark, 'Regulatory Tightening in the GCC: New Energy Label Norms and Compliance Risks' (Law/Regulation Analysis 2025).
How to Cite
Al-Meqareh, M. B. . (2026). Energy Efficiency and Conservation: A Comparative Analysis of Regulatory Approaches Among GCC Countries . International Review of Law, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.29117/irl.2026.0350
Section
Articles in English