Legal Challenges of Climate Finance and Compensation in Achieving Net-Zero Emissions
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Published
May 12, 2026
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Mohammad Chehade Ali Ismail
https://orcid.org/0009-0005-6850-332X
https://orcid.org/0009-0005-6850-332X
Abstract
This research analyzes the legal challenges associated with climate finance and compensation in the context of achieving net-zero emissions targets. Its significance lies in the need to develop effective legal frameworks that ensure international compliance with climate agreements, with particular attention to the role of major countries and international organizations in financing mitigation and adaptation projects. The study contributes to bridging the scientific gap by offering an in-depth legal analysis of existing mechanisms and identifying the shortcomings that hinder the realization of climate justice.
The study adopts an analytical and inductive approach, examining international agreements such as the Paris Agreement and the Green Climate Fund, while assessing the practices of states and international organizations. It also relies on the analysis of documents and reports to derive precise conclusions regarding the effectiveness of current legal mechanisms.
The findings indicate that insufficient commitment from major countries constitutes a key challenge in climate finance, alongside the absence of a binding legal framework, which leads to an unequal distribution of resources. The study underscores the importance of strengthening public–private partnerships and establishing transparent standards to ensure the equitable allocation of compensation. It also offers recommendations to enhance legal enforcement and improve the effectiveness of international mechanisms in securing sustainable funding.
This research makes a valuable academic contribution by addressing the legal complexities of climate finance, analyzing key challenges, and proposing solutions to support climate objectives. It further provides a foundation for future studies on the development of binding international legislation aimed at advancing climate justice and ensuring the implementation of global commitments.
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Keywords
Environmental governanceInternational obligationsSustainable developmentLegal responsibilityAdaptation policiesCompensation mechanismsRegulatory practices
References
1. Books:
Akenji, Lars. Bengtsson Magnus & Bringezu Stefan. Sustainable Development Goals and Climate Change: Tackling Environmental Inequality, 1st ed, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2019.
Anderson, Benedict. Climate Politics: Understanding the Global Response to Climate Change, Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2019.
Aylward, Brian. International Climate Law and Policy: A Global Perspective, Routledge, London, 2020.
Bhattacharya, Anil. Meltzer Jason, Oppenheim Jonathan, Qureshi Zia & Stern Nicholas. Financing Climate Action: The Role of Public-Private Partnerships, Brookings Institution Press, Washington, D.C., 2019.
Bodansky, Daniel. The Art and Craft of International Environmental Law, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 2021.
Caney, Simon. Climate Justice and Transparency: Legal and Ethical Dimensions, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2021.
–––. Justice Beyond Borders: A Global Political Theory, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2020.
Clark, G. L. Innovative Climate Finance: Public-Private Partnerships and Green Bonds, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2020.
Dellink, R. International Cooperation on Climate Finance: Challenges and Opportunities, Springer, Cham, 2019.
Dubash, N. K. & Morgan, B. The Politics of Climate Change and Financing, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2021.
Falkner, R. The Politics of Climate Finance and Global Environmental Governance, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2021.
Fenton, P. & Williams, D. International Climate Finance: The Political Economy of Funding the Transition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2021.
Fenton, P., Williams, D. & González, A. International Climate Finance: Policies and Practices, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2020.
Gemenne, F., Cario, M. & Brémond, P. Climate Change and International Law: Approaches and Challenges, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2019.
–––. Global Environmental Governance and Climate Finance, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2019.
Ghosh, A. The Climate Challenge: Financing a Green Future, Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2022.
Gidden, M., Thompson, G., and Gilbert, T. Global Climate Finance and Policy: Challenges and Opportunities, Routledge, London, 2019.
Gupta, J., and Arts, K. Achieving Environmental Justice: Perspectives on Climate Change and Equity, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2020.
–––. Achieving the 1.5°C Objective: Political, Social and Economic Challenges, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2018.
Hickmann, T. Rethinking Authority in Global Climate Governance: How Transnational Climate Initiatives Relate to International Climate Politics, Routledge, London, 2020.
Hsu, A., Moffat, A. S. & Schwartz, J. Sustainability Disclosure and Investment Strategies: Implications for Green Finance, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2021.
Hunter, D., Salzman, J. & Zaelke, D. International Environmental Law and Policy, Foundation Press, New York, 2020.
Jacobsson, S. & Bergek, A. Innovation Systems and Policy: A Study of Renewable Energy and Green Technologies, Routledge, London, 2020.
Klein, R. J., Huq, S. & Munasinghe, M. Climate Change and Sustainable Development: Legal and Policy Perspectives, Routledge, London, 2020.
Lyster, R. Climate Change and the Law: Responsibilities and Compensation, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2018.
Lyster, R. The Legal Framework for Climate Compensation and Liability, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2021.
Markandya, A., González-Eguino, M. & Escapa, M. Environmental Policy and Climate Finance: Challenges and Opportunities, Springer, Cham, 2019.
McCollum, D. L., Krey, V. & Riahi, K. Technological Innovations for Climate Mitigation: A Global Perspective, Springer, Cham, 2020.
Michaelowa, A. Carbon Markets and Climate Finance: Global Perspectives, Routledge, London, 2021.
Michaelowa, A. & Michaelowa, K. Financing Climate Action: A Global Perspective, Routledge, London, 2021.
Miller, S. Climate Governance: Legal Pathways to Effective Action, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2021.
–––. Taxation for Sustainable Development: A Global Perspective on Climate Policy, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2020.
Nachmany, M., Fankhauser, S. & Setzer, J. Global Climate Legislation: Analysis of National Laws and Policies, Routledge, London, 2020.
Okereke, C. Global Justice and Resource Allocation in Climate Governance, Routledge, London, 2021.
Pauw, P., Cassanmagnago, D. & Bauer, S. Financing Climate Action: Strategies for Effective Implementation, Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2018.
Peel, J. & Osofsky, H. M. Climate Change Litigation: Regulatory Pathways to Environmental Justice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2022.
Pickering, J., Betzold, C. & Skovgaard, J. Managing Climate Finance: Global and Local Perspectives, Springer, Cham, 2021.
Ajmani, L. & Bodansky, D. International Climate Change Law: Challenges of Implementation and Compliance, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2022.
Roberts, J. T. & Parks, B. C. A Climate of Injustice: Global Inequality, North-South Politics, and Climate Policy, MIT Press, Cambridge, 2007.
Roberts, J. T. & Weikmans, R. Global Climate Governance and the Role of Climate Finance, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2021.
Shue, H. Climate Justice: Vulnerability and Protection, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2014.
Stern, N. The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2020.
Tosun, J. & Jörgensen, K. The Politics of Climate Change: Addressing Global Governance Challenges, Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2021.
Van den Bergh, J. C. J. M., Folke, C. & Polasky, S. Transformative Climate Policy: Balancing Economic and Environmental Goals, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2021.
Zenghelis, D. & Stern, N. Financing Sustainable Growth in a Carbon-Constrained World, London School of Economics Press, London, 2021.
Zhang, L., Li, Y. & Lee, H. International Climate Law and Finance: Reaching Net Zero Emissions, Routledge, London, 2021.
2. Articles:
Baker, Lee, Newell, Paul & Phillips, John. “Renewable Energy in South Africa: Dynamics and Challenges.” Energy Policy, vol. 128, 2019.
Bodansky, Daniel. “The Paris Climate Agreement: A New Hope?” American Journal of International Law, vol. 110, no. 2, 2016.
Chaudhury, Sharmind Neelormi, Vervoort, Joost & Kristjanson, Patti. “Climate Technology Transfer: Opportunities and Challenges.” Climate Policy, vol. 21, no. 4, 2021.
Dupuy, Pierre-Marie. “National Legislation and Climate Justice: A Comparative Analysis.” Environmental Law Review, vol. 24, no. 2, 2022.
Ehlers, Torsten. “Public-Private Partnerships in Green Finance: The German Experience.” Journal of Sustainable Finance & Investment, vol. 11, no. 2, 2021.
Fischer, Carolyn & Newell, Richard G. “Tax Incentives for Climate Action: A Review of US Policies.” Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, vol. 105, 2022.
Huq, Saleemul and Reid, Hannah. “Climate Finance and Adaptation in Vulnerable Countries: Challenges and Opportunities.” Global Environmental Change, vol. 68, 2021.
Mazzucato, Mariana & Semieniuk, Gregor. “Financing Renewable Energy: Who Is Financing What and Why It Matters.” Technological Forecasting and Social Change, vol. 127, 2018.
Pauw, Wim P., Castro, Pedro & Pickering, Jessica. “Conditionality and Climate Finance: The Role of Policy and Institutional Factors.” Climate Policy, vol. 20, no. 2, 2020.
Rajamani, Lavanya. “The Principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities in Climate Agreements.” International Environmental Agreements, vol. 20, no. 1, 2020.
Rajamani, Lavanya & Peel, Joanna. “International Legal Responses to Climate Compensation: A Critical Analysis.” Environmental Law Review, vol. 23, no. 2, 2021.
Roberts, J. Timmons & Huq, Saleemul. “Loss and Damage from Climate Change: Emerging Trends and Policy Implications.” Annual Review of Environment and Resources, vol. 47, 2022.
Setzer, Julius, and Byrnes, Rachel. “Global Trends in Climate Litigation: 2021 Snapshot.” Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment, 2021.
Setzer, Julius & Byrnes, Rachel. “Global Trends in Climate Litigation: 2020 Snapshot.” Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment, 2020.
Voigt, Christina, and Ferreira, Francisco. “International Climate Litigation: Emerging Challenges and Opportunities.” Transnational Environmental Law, vol. 11, no. 1, 2022.
Wright, Peter. “Offshore Wind Energy: Lessons from the UK Hornsea One Project.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 133, 2020.
3. Reports:
Adaptation Fund, Annual Performance Report 2020, Adaptation Fund Board 2020.
–––, Annual Report on Adaptation Finance and Projects, Adaptation Fund 2020.
African Development Bank, African Environmental Action Program: Regional Responses to Climate Change, ADB Publications 2021.
Buchner, B., Oliver, P., & Corfee-Morlot, J., Financing Climate Action: The Role of the Private Sector and Public Funds, OECD Publishing 2021.
–––, Financing Climate Action: Mechanisms for Global Change, OECD Publishing 2020.
–––, Global Climate Finance: A Review of Current Trends, OECD Publishing 2020.
Buchner, B., Oliver, P., Wang, X., & Carswell, C., Global Landscape of Climate Finance 2021, Climate Policy Initiative 2021.
Cochran, I., Hubert, R., & Marchal, V., Innovative Finance for Climate Action: The Role of Private Investment, OECD Publishing 2021.
European Commission, Delivering the European Green Deal, European Union Publishing 2021.
–––,The European Green Deal: A Policy Framework for Sustainable Investments, European Union Publications 2021.
GCF, Annual Report: GCF Impact and Achievements in 2021, Green Climate Fund 2021.
–––, Green Climate Fund Annual Report 2020, Green Climate Fund 2021.
–––, Green Climate Fund: Funding for Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation, Green Climate Fund 2020.
Green Climate Fund, Green Climate Fund Annual Report 2021, GCF Publishing 2021.
–––, Programming Manual: A Guide for Developing Climate Projects, GCF Publishing 2021.
–––, Strategic Plan for the Green Climate Fund 2020-2023, GCF Publishing 2020.
Hallegatte, S., Rentschler, J. & Rozenberg, J., Adaptation Principles: Strategies for Climate Resilient Development, World Bank 2020.
IMF, The Role of the IMF in Climate Action, International Monetary Fund 2020.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis, Cambridge University Press 2021.
OECD, Climate Finance 2021: A Progress Report on Global Contributions, OECD Publishing 2021.
–––, Climate Finance Provided and Mobilised by Developed Countries: Progress Towards the $100 Billion Goal, OECD Publishing 2022.
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Climate Finance Provided and Mobilised by Developed Countries in 2013-18, OECD Publishing 2020.
–––, Financing Climate Action in Developing Countries, OECD Publishing 2020.
UNDP, Climate Finance: Enabling Countries to Develop Climate Resilience, United Nations Development Program 2019.
–––, Supporting Climate Action in Developing Countries: Financial Mechanisms and Strategies, United Nations Development program 2020.
UNFCCC, Annual Report: UNFCCC and the Climate Finance Landscape, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2021.
–––, Transforming the Energy Sector: Legal Pathways to a Low Carbon Future, UNFCCC Secretariat 2020.
United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), Adaptation Gap Report 2019, UNEP 2019.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Clean Development Mechanism Rules, Modalities and Procedures (2005).
–––, Climate Finance for Developing Countries, UNFCCC 2020.
World Bank, Climate Finance: How to Improve Access for Developing Countries, World Bank Report 2020.
–––, Climate Finance: Moving Forward with the Global Agenda, World Bank Group 2020.
–––, Climate Investment Funds Annual Report 2020, World Bank Group 2020.
–––, Climate Investment Funds Annual Report, World Bank Group 2021.
World Economic Forum, The Future of Sustainable Investment, WEF Publishing 2021.
Conventions and laws
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Paris Agreement (2015).
–––, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992).
–––, Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage Associated with Climate Change Impacts (2013).
Akenji, Lars. Bengtsson Magnus & Bringezu Stefan. Sustainable Development Goals and Climate Change: Tackling Environmental Inequality, 1st ed, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2019.
Anderson, Benedict. Climate Politics: Understanding the Global Response to Climate Change, Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2019.
Aylward, Brian. International Climate Law and Policy: A Global Perspective, Routledge, London, 2020.
Bhattacharya, Anil. Meltzer Jason, Oppenheim Jonathan, Qureshi Zia & Stern Nicholas. Financing Climate Action: The Role of Public-Private Partnerships, Brookings Institution Press, Washington, D.C., 2019.
Bodansky, Daniel. The Art and Craft of International Environmental Law, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 2021.
Caney, Simon. Climate Justice and Transparency: Legal and Ethical Dimensions, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2021.
–––. Justice Beyond Borders: A Global Political Theory, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2020.
Clark, G. L. Innovative Climate Finance: Public-Private Partnerships and Green Bonds, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2020.
Dellink, R. International Cooperation on Climate Finance: Challenges and Opportunities, Springer, Cham, 2019.
Dubash, N. K. & Morgan, B. The Politics of Climate Change and Financing, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2021.
Falkner, R. The Politics of Climate Finance and Global Environmental Governance, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2021.
Fenton, P. & Williams, D. International Climate Finance: The Political Economy of Funding the Transition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2021.
Fenton, P., Williams, D. & González, A. International Climate Finance: Policies and Practices, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2020.
Gemenne, F., Cario, M. & Brémond, P. Climate Change and International Law: Approaches and Challenges, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2019.
–––. Global Environmental Governance and Climate Finance, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2019.
Ghosh, A. The Climate Challenge: Financing a Green Future, Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2022.
Gidden, M., Thompson, G., and Gilbert, T. Global Climate Finance and Policy: Challenges and Opportunities, Routledge, London, 2019.
Gupta, J., and Arts, K. Achieving Environmental Justice: Perspectives on Climate Change and Equity, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2020.
–––. Achieving the 1.5°C Objective: Political, Social and Economic Challenges, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2018.
Hickmann, T. Rethinking Authority in Global Climate Governance: How Transnational Climate Initiatives Relate to International Climate Politics, Routledge, London, 2020.
Hsu, A., Moffat, A. S. & Schwartz, J. Sustainability Disclosure and Investment Strategies: Implications for Green Finance, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2021.
Hunter, D., Salzman, J. & Zaelke, D. International Environmental Law and Policy, Foundation Press, New York, 2020.
Jacobsson, S. & Bergek, A. Innovation Systems and Policy: A Study of Renewable Energy and Green Technologies, Routledge, London, 2020.
Klein, R. J., Huq, S. & Munasinghe, M. Climate Change and Sustainable Development: Legal and Policy Perspectives, Routledge, London, 2020.
Lyster, R. Climate Change and the Law: Responsibilities and Compensation, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2018.
Lyster, R. The Legal Framework for Climate Compensation and Liability, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2021.
Markandya, A., González-Eguino, M. & Escapa, M. Environmental Policy and Climate Finance: Challenges and Opportunities, Springer, Cham, 2019.
McCollum, D. L., Krey, V. & Riahi, K. Technological Innovations for Climate Mitigation: A Global Perspective, Springer, Cham, 2020.
Michaelowa, A. Carbon Markets and Climate Finance: Global Perspectives, Routledge, London, 2021.
Michaelowa, A. & Michaelowa, K. Financing Climate Action: A Global Perspective, Routledge, London, 2021.
Miller, S. Climate Governance: Legal Pathways to Effective Action, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2021.
–––. Taxation for Sustainable Development: A Global Perspective on Climate Policy, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2020.
Nachmany, M., Fankhauser, S. & Setzer, J. Global Climate Legislation: Analysis of National Laws and Policies, Routledge, London, 2020.
Okereke, C. Global Justice and Resource Allocation in Climate Governance, Routledge, London, 2021.
Pauw, P., Cassanmagnago, D. & Bauer, S. Financing Climate Action: Strategies for Effective Implementation, Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2018.
Peel, J. & Osofsky, H. M. Climate Change Litigation: Regulatory Pathways to Environmental Justice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2022.
Pickering, J., Betzold, C. & Skovgaard, J. Managing Climate Finance: Global and Local Perspectives, Springer, Cham, 2021.
Ajmani, L. & Bodansky, D. International Climate Change Law: Challenges of Implementation and Compliance, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2022.
Roberts, J. T. & Parks, B. C. A Climate of Injustice: Global Inequality, North-South Politics, and Climate Policy, MIT Press, Cambridge, 2007.
Roberts, J. T. & Weikmans, R. Global Climate Governance and the Role of Climate Finance, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2021.
Shue, H. Climate Justice: Vulnerability and Protection, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2014.
Stern, N. The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2020.
Tosun, J. & Jörgensen, K. The Politics of Climate Change: Addressing Global Governance Challenges, Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2021.
Van den Bergh, J. C. J. M., Folke, C. & Polasky, S. Transformative Climate Policy: Balancing Economic and Environmental Goals, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2021.
Zenghelis, D. & Stern, N. Financing Sustainable Growth in a Carbon-Constrained World, London School of Economics Press, London, 2021.
Zhang, L., Li, Y. & Lee, H. International Climate Law and Finance: Reaching Net Zero Emissions, Routledge, London, 2021.
2. Articles:
Baker, Lee, Newell, Paul & Phillips, John. “Renewable Energy in South Africa: Dynamics and Challenges.” Energy Policy, vol. 128, 2019.
Bodansky, Daniel. “The Paris Climate Agreement: A New Hope?” American Journal of International Law, vol. 110, no. 2, 2016.
Chaudhury, Sharmind Neelormi, Vervoort, Joost & Kristjanson, Patti. “Climate Technology Transfer: Opportunities and Challenges.” Climate Policy, vol. 21, no. 4, 2021.
Dupuy, Pierre-Marie. “National Legislation and Climate Justice: A Comparative Analysis.” Environmental Law Review, vol. 24, no. 2, 2022.
Ehlers, Torsten. “Public-Private Partnerships in Green Finance: The German Experience.” Journal of Sustainable Finance & Investment, vol. 11, no. 2, 2021.
Fischer, Carolyn & Newell, Richard G. “Tax Incentives for Climate Action: A Review of US Policies.” Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, vol. 105, 2022.
Huq, Saleemul and Reid, Hannah. “Climate Finance and Adaptation in Vulnerable Countries: Challenges and Opportunities.” Global Environmental Change, vol. 68, 2021.
Mazzucato, Mariana & Semieniuk, Gregor. “Financing Renewable Energy: Who Is Financing What and Why It Matters.” Technological Forecasting and Social Change, vol. 127, 2018.
Pauw, Wim P., Castro, Pedro & Pickering, Jessica. “Conditionality and Climate Finance: The Role of Policy and Institutional Factors.” Climate Policy, vol. 20, no. 2, 2020.
Rajamani, Lavanya. “The Principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities in Climate Agreements.” International Environmental Agreements, vol. 20, no. 1, 2020.
Rajamani, Lavanya & Peel, Joanna. “International Legal Responses to Climate Compensation: A Critical Analysis.” Environmental Law Review, vol. 23, no. 2, 2021.
Roberts, J. Timmons & Huq, Saleemul. “Loss and Damage from Climate Change: Emerging Trends and Policy Implications.” Annual Review of Environment and Resources, vol. 47, 2022.
Setzer, Julius, and Byrnes, Rachel. “Global Trends in Climate Litigation: 2021 Snapshot.” Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment, 2021.
Setzer, Julius & Byrnes, Rachel. “Global Trends in Climate Litigation: 2020 Snapshot.” Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment, 2020.
Voigt, Christina, and Ferreira, Francisco. “International Climate Litigation: Emerging Challenges and Opportunities.” Transnational Environmental Law, vol. 11, no. 1, 2022.
Wright, Peter. “Offshore Wind Energy: Lessons from the UK Hornsea One Project.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 133, 2020.
3. Reports:
Adaptation Fund, Annual Performance Report 2020, Adaptation Fund Board 2020.
–––, Annual Report on Adaptation Finance and Projects, Adaptation Fund 2020.
African Development Bank, African Environmental Action Program: Regional Responses to Climate Change, ADB Publications 2021.
Buchner, B., Oliver, P., & Corfee-Morlot, J., Financing Climate Action: The Role of the Private Sector and Public Funds, OECD Publishing 2021.
–––, Financing Climate Action: Mechanisms for Global Change, OECD Publishing 2020.
–––, Global Climate Finance: A Review of Current Trends, OECD Publishing 2020.
Buchner, B., Oliver, P., Wang, X., & Carswell, C., Global Landscape of Climate Finance 2021, Climate Policy Initiative 2021.
Cochran, I., Hubert, R., & Marchal, V., Innovative Finance for Climate Action: The Role of Private Investment, OECD Publishing 2021.
European Commission, Delivering the European Green Deal, European Union Publishing 2021.
–––,The European Green Deal: A Policy Framework for Sustainable Investments, European Union Publications 2021.
GCF, Annual Report: GCF Impact and Achievements in 2021, Green Climate Fund 2021.
–––, Green Climate Fund Annual Report 2020, Green Climate Fund 2021.
–––, Green Climate Fund: Funding for Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation, Green Climate Fund 2020.
Green Climate Fund, Green Climate Fund Annual Report 2021, GCF Publishing 2021.
–––, Programming Manual: A Guide for Developing Climate Projects, GCF Publishing 2021.
–––, Strategic Plan for the Green Climate Fund 2020-2023, GCF Publishing 2020.
Hallegatte, S., Rentschler, J. & Rozenberg, J., Adaptation Principles: Strategies for Climate Resilient Development, World Bank 2020.
IMF, The Role of the IMF in Climate Action, International Monetary Fund 2020.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis, Cambridge University Press 2021.
OECD, Climate Finance 2021: A Progress Report on Global Contributions, OECD Publishing 2021.
–––, Climate Finance Provided and Mobilised by Developed Countries: Progress Towards the $100 Billion Goal, OECD Publishing 2022.
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Climate Finance Provided and Mobilised by Developed Countries in 2013-18, OECD Publishing 2020.
–––, Financing Climate Action in Developing Countries, OECD Publishing 2020.
UNDP, Climate Finance: Enabling Countries to Develop Climate Resilience, United Nations Development Program 2019.
–––, Supporting Climate Action in Developing Countries: Financial Mechanisms and Strategies, United Nations Development program 2020.
UNFCCC, Annual Report: UNFCCC and the Climate Finance Landscape, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2021.
–––, Transforming the Energy Sector: Legal Pathways to a Low Carbon Future, UNFCCC Secretariat 2020.
United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), Adaptation Gap Report 2019, UNEP 2019.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Clean Development Mechanism Rules, Modalities and Procedures (2005).
–––, Climate Finance for Developing Countries, UNFCCC 2020.
World Bank, Climate Finance: How to Improve Access for Developing Countries, World Bank Report 2020.
–––, Climate Finance: Moving Forward with the Global Agenda, World Bank Group 2020.
–––, Climate Investment Funds Annual Report 2020, World Bank Group 2020.
–––, Climate Investment Funds Annual Report, World Bank Group 2021.
World Economic Forum, The Future of Sustainable Investment, WEF Publishing 2021.
Conventions and laws
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Paris Agreement (2015).
–––, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992).
–––, Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage Associated with Climate Change Impacts (2013).
How to Cite
Ismail, M. C. A. . (2026). Legal Challenges of Climate Finance and Compensation in Achieving Net-Zero Emissions. International Review of Law, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.29117/irl.2026.0346
Section
Articles in Arabic