Defence via Videoconference Technology in Morocco: A Procedural Violation or the Future of the Criminal Trial?
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Nov 9, 2023
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Abstract
The Kingdom of Morocco, like many countries around the world, has seen an increased use of videoconferencing technology by the courts during the period of confinement. By facilitating the appearance of defendants at a distance during hearings, the latest technology appears, at first sight, to ensure the continuity of the judicial system, and respect the fundamental guarantees of a fair trial, in particular within reasonable time limit. This research aims to address the various legal and judicial concerns raised by the use of videoconferencing in criminal hearings, and therefore allows for the creation of a solid and clear basis for any decision to abandon traditional hearings and move directly to remote hearings in the future. Considering the particular nature of the subject, combining the legal, technological, social and psychological spheres, the authors relied, in this study, on an analytical approach based fundamentally on the analysis of the results of studies on the impact of videoconferencing that have been carried out in many scientific areas, and thus on the observation of the use of this technology in Moroccan courts, with the aim of apprehending globally these effects on the trial. The research has led to several results, the most important of which consists in the inability of the videoconference technique to transmit a neutral and transparent image of the accused appearing at a distance, which affects his right to an effective and concrete defence. In addition, the latest technology contributes to weaken the basic principles of the trial, especially the contradictory and orality, which negatively affects justice and fairness of the criminal trial.
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Keywords
VideoconferencingRight to a Fair TrialRights of DefenseAccusedRemote hearing
References
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Braun, S., ‘the European AVIDICUS projects: Collaborating to assess the viability of video-mediated interpreting in legal proceedings’ (2016) 4 European Journal of Applied Linguistics 173. https://doi.org/10.1515/eujal-2016-0002.
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Conseil Supérieur du Pouvoir Judicaire, Les mesures stratégiques prises par le Conseil Supérieur du Pouvoir Judiciaire au cours de la période d'état d'urgence sanitaire : gouvernance, solidarité, communication. Rabat : Conseil Supérieur du Pouvoir Judicaire 2020. https://www.cspj.ma/fr/documents/publications, (consulté janvier 14, 2023).
Danet Jean, “vers une nouvelle oralité ?,” Les Cahiers de La Justice 2, no. 2 (Dalloz 2011), https://doi.org/10.3917/cdlj.1102.0073.
Danziger, Sh., J. Levav and others, ‘Extraneous factors in judicial decisions’ (2011) 108 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 6889. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.101803310.
De Lucia A, Francese R, and others, ‘SLMeeting: supporting collaborative work in Second Life’ In Proceedings of the working conference on Advanced visual interfaces (AVI '08) (New York, Association for Computing Machinery 2008) 301-304. https://doi.org/10.1145/1385569.1385618.
Demetrios K., D. Wildman and others, ‘Improving Remote Collaboration with Video Conferencing and Video Portals’ (2016) 31 Human–Computer Interaction 1-58. https://doi.org/10.1080/07370024.2014.921506.
Diamond Sh S, Patton M M and others, ‘Efficiency and cost: the impact of videoconferenced hearings on bail decisions’ (2010) 100(3), Journal of criminal Law and Criminology 869-902. https://doi.org/10.2307/25766111.
Dumoulin L and C Licoppe, ‘Trial at a Distance: Videoconference Technology as a Policy Tool?’ in Proceedings of the International Conference in Public Policy 1 (5) (Milano, July, 1st - 4th 2015) 7. accessed 14 May 2022.
Dumoulin Laurence, “parlez dans le visiophone ! La distance dans l’exercice des activités médicales et judiciaires,” Sciences sociales et santé 26, no.03 (John Libbey Eurotext2008), https://doi.org/10.3917/sss.263.0107.
Dunn M. and R. Norwick, ‘report of a survey of videoconferencing in the courts of appeals’ (Federal Judicial Center, 2006).
E J Van Der Vlis, ‘Videoconferencing in criminal proceedings. Videoconference and Remote Interpreting’ in S Braun and J L Taylor (eds), Criminal Proceedings (Guildford, University of Surrey 2011) 11.
Eagly I, ‘Remote Adjudication in Immigration’ (2015) 109(4), Northwestern University Law Review 933. accessed 14 May 2022.
Feldman R S and Chesley R B, ‘Who is lying, who is not: An attributional analysis of the effects of nonverbal behavior on judgements of defendant believability’ (1984) 2(4), Behavioral Sciences & the Law 451–461. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2370020411
Fourment F., É Derlon et autres, “chronique de jurisprudence de la Cour européenne des droits de l'Homme en matière pénale. Les quatre saisons de la Cour : printemps-été 2008 : 1er avril 2008 – 30 septembre 2008,” revue internationale droit pénal 79, no. 03 (Érès 2008), https://doi.org/10.3917/ridp.793.0449.
Françoise Vanhamme, Kristel Beyens, “La recherche en sentencing: un survol contextualisé,” Déviance et Société 31, no. 02 (Médecine & Hygiène2007), https://doi.org/10.3917/ds.312.0199.
Fullwood C., ‘the effect of mediation on impression formation: A comparison of face-to-face and video-mediated conditions’ (2007) 38 Applied Ergonomics 270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2006.06.002.
Gibbs P, ‘Defendants on video–conveyor belt justice or a revolution in access’ (London: Transform Justice, 2017) 17. accessed 10 June 2022.
‘Government Accountability Office, Actions Needed to Reduce Case Backlog and Address Long Standing Management and Operational Challenges’ (2017) 55. accessed 11 May 2022.
Hatim A, M. Miloudi and others, ‘Promoting the Defence´s Role in the Preliminary Investigation, a Challenge in Maghrebian Criminal Proceedings’ (2022) 19 The Age of Human Rights Journal 47. https://doi.org/10.17561/tahrj.v19.7123.
Janin Marc, “la visioconférence à l’épreuve du procès équitable,” les cahiers de la justice 2, no.02 (Dalloz 2011), https://doi.org/10.3917/cdlj.1102.0013.
Jérôme Bossan, “la visioconférence dans le procès pénal : un outil à maitriser,” Revue de science criminelle et de droit pénal comparé 4, no. 4 (Dalloz 2011), https://doi.org/10.3917/rsc.1104.0801.
Johnson M T and E C Wiggins, ‘Videoconferencing in Criminal Proceedings: Legal and Empirical Issues and Directions for Research’ (2006) 28(2) Law & Policy Journal 217. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9930.2006.00224.x.
‘Justice under Lockdown: A survey of the criminal justice system in England & Wales between March and May 2020’ 07.
Kaminski Dan, “que font faire les technologies à la justice pénale ?” Déviance et Société 37, no.03 (Médecine & Hygiène 2013), https://doi.org/10.3917/ds.373.0255.
Kostelak R., ‘Videoconference Technology and the Confrontation Clause’ (2014) 33 Cornell Law School J.D. accessed 19 May 2022.
“La visio-conférence dans le prétoire : présentation,” Les Cahiers de la Justice 2, no.2 (Dalloz 2011), https://doi.org/10.3917/cdlj.1102.0011.
Landstrom S, P A Granhag and others, ‘Children’s live and videotaped testimonies: How presentation mode affects observers’ perception, assessment and memory’ (2007) 12, Legal and Criminological Psychology 333-347. https://doi.org/10.1348/135532506X133607.
Lassiter G. D. and A. A. Irvine, ‘Videotaped Confessions: The Impact of Camera Point of View on Judgments of Coercion’ (1986) 16 Journal of Applied Social Psychology 268-276. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1986.tb01139.x.
Laurence Dumoulin, Christian Licoppe., “Justice et visioconférence : les audiences à distance. Genèse et institutionnalisation d'une innovation,” 2 (2009). https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00433880/, (consulté janvier 14, 2023).
Lederer F I and S H Solomon, ‘Courtroom Technology - An Introduction to the Onrushing Future’ (1997) 04. < https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/facpubs/1653 > accessed 19 May 2022
Magrath P., ‘Transparency, Data Protection and the Law Courts of the Future’ (2018) 18 Legal Information Management 70. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1472669618000166.
McKay C, ‘Video links from prison: court “appearance” within carceral space’ (2018) 14(2), Law, Culture and the Humanities 262. https://doi.org/10.1177/1743872115608350.
Mehrabian A and W Morton, ‘Decoding of inconsistent communications’ (1967) 6(1) Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 109-114. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0024532.
Mehrabian A, S R Ferris, ‘Inference of attitudes from nonverbal communication in two channels’ (1967) 31(3) Journal of Consulting Psychology 252. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0024648.
Meredith R and D Tait, ‘Courts are moving to video during coronavirus, but research shows it’s hard to get a fair trial remotely’ (The Conversation, 2020). accessed 10 May 2022.
Milburn Philip, “Juger par écran interposé : une révolution anthropologique,” Actualité Juridique Pénal, no.05 (Dalloz 2019), https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00433880, (consulté janvier 14, 2023).
Nguyen D T and J Canny, ‘More than face-to-face: empathy effects of video framing’ In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference Human Factors in Computing Systems (April 2009) 423-432. https://doi.org/10.1145/1518701.1518770.
Orcutt H K, G S Goodman and others, ‘Detecting Deception in Children's Testimony: Factfinders' Abilities to Reach the Truth in Open Court and Closed-Circuit Trials’ (2001) 25(4), Law and Human Behavior 357-363. https://doi.org/10.1023/A: 1010603618330.
Poulin A B, ‘Criminal justice and videoconferencing technology: the remote defendant’ (2003) 78(4) Tulane Law Review 1139. < https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/tulr78&div=48&id=&page= > accessed 29 September 2022.
Présidence du Ministère Public, rapport de la présidence du ministère public sur l’exécution de la politique pénale pour l’année 2020. Rabat : Présidence du Ministère Public 2021. https://www.pmp.ma/%d8%a5%d8%b5%d8%af%d8%a7%d8%b1%d8%a7%d8%aa/, (consulté janvier 14, 2023).
Rossner M, D Tait and others, ‘The Dock on Trial: Courtroom Design and the Presumption of Innocence’ (2017) 44(3), Journal of Law and Society 317-344. https://doi.org/10.1111/jols.12033.
Rowden E and A Wallace, ‘Remote judging: the impact of video links on the image and the role of the judge’ (2018) 14(4) International Journal of Law in Context 504. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1744552318000216.
Rowden E. and A. Wallace, ‘Performing Expertise: The Design of Audiovisual Links and the Construction of the Remote Expert Witness in Court’ (2018) Social & Legal Studies 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1177/0964663918802991.
Slovák P, ‘Effect of Videoconferencing Environments on Perception of Communication’ (2007) 1(1) Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace. accessed 19 September 2022
Storck J and L Sproull, ‘Through a glass darkly: What do people learn in videoconferences?’ (1995) 22(2) Human Communication Research 200. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.1995.tb00366.x.
Tait D, McKimmie B M and others, ‘Towards a distributed courtroom’ (Research Report, Western Sydney University 2017) 49. accessed 14 May 2022.
Thaxton R, ‘Injustice Telecast: The Illegal Use of Closed-Circuit Television Arraignments and Bail Bond Hearing Federal Court’ (1993) 79, Iowa Law Review 175.
Vavonese L B, E Ling and others, ‘How Video Changes the Conversation’ (2020) 04-05. accessed 19 June 2022.
“XIXe Congrès International de Droit Pénal : Société de l’information et droit pénal,” Revue internationale de droit pénal 85, no. 3-4 (Érès 2014), https://doi.org/10.3917/ridp.853.0613.
Zorza R, ‘Video Conferencing for Access to Justice: An Evaluation of the Montana Experiment’ (Legal Services Corporation, 2007) 01-34. accessed 19 May 2022.
Cases:
Case of Marcello Viola V. Italie App no. 45106/04 (ECtHR 5 October 2006).
Case of Sakhnovski V. Russie App no. 21272/03 (ECtHR 2 November 2010).
Case of Shulepov V. Russie App no. 15435/03 (ECtHR 26June 2008).
Case of Zagaria V. Italie App no. 58295/00 (ECtHR 5 November 2007).
Belfanti Ludocic, “la visioconférence en matière pénale : entre utilité et controverses,” Actualité juridique Pénal, no.04, (Dalloz 2014).
Bellone, E. T., ‘Private Attorney-Client Communications and the Effect of Videoconferencing in the Courtroom’ (2013) 8 Journal of International Commercial Law and Technology 24.
Bietz M J, ‘Effects of communication media on the interpretation of critical feedback’ In Proceedings of the 2008 ACM conference on Computer supported cooperative work (CSCW '08) (New York Association for Computing Machinery 2008) 467-476. https://doi.org/10.1145/1460563.1460637.
Braun, S., ‘the European AVIDICUS projects: Collaborating to assess the viability of video-mediated interpreting in legal proceedings’ (2016) 4 European Journal of Applied Linguistics 173. https://doi.org/10.1515/eujal-2016-0002.
Chiavario M., “la vidéoconférence comme moyenne de participation aux audiences pénales (cour européenne des droits de l’homme 3e section Marcello viola c. Italie, 5 octobre 2006),” revue trimestrielle des droits de l’homme, no. 73 (2008), https://www.rtdh.eu/fr/journal/revtrimdrh/2008-73/la-videoconference-comme-moyen-de-participation-aux-audiences-penales/index.html#page/223/search/, (consulté janvier 14, 2023).
Conseil National des Droits de l’Homme, Covid-19 : situation exceptionnelle et nouvel exercice des droits de l'Homme au Maroc pour l’année 2020. Rabat : Conseil National des Droits de l’Homme 2021. https://www.cndh.org.ma/fr/rapports-annuels/rapport-annuel-sur-letat-des-droits-de-lhomme-au-maroc-au-titre-de-lannee-2020, (consulté janvier 14, 2023).
Conseil National des Droits de l’Homme, Droits de l’homme en 2021 : Les répercussions du Covid 19 sur les groupes vulnérables et les parcours réels. Rabat : Conseil National des Droits de l’Homme 2022. https://www.cndh.org.ma/fr/rapports-annuels/rapport-annuel-sur-letat-des-droits-de-lhomme-au-maroc-au-titre-de-lannee-2020, (consulté janvier 14, 2023).
Conseil Supérieur du Pouvoir Judicaire, Les mesures stratégiques prises par le Conseil Supérieur du Pouvoir Judiciaire au cours de la période d'état d'urgence sanitaire : gouvernance, solidarité, communication. Rabat : Conseil Supérieur du Pouvoir Judicaire 2020. https://www.cspj.ma/fr/documents/publications, (consulté janvier 14, 2023).
Danet Jean, “vers une nouvelle oralité ?,” Les Cahiers de La Justice 2, no. 2 (Dalloz 2011), https://doi.org/10.3917/cdlj.1102.0073.
Danziger, Sh., J. Levav and others, ‘Extraneous factors in judicial decisions’ (2011) 108 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 6889. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.101803310.
De Lucia A, Francese R, and others, ‘SLMeeting: supporting collaborative work in Second Life’ In Proceedings of the working conference on Advanced visual interfaces (AVI '08) (New York, Association for Computing Machinery 2008) 301-304. https://doi.org/10.1145/1385569.1385618.
Demetrios K., D. Wildman and others, ‘Improving Remote Collaboration with Video Conferencing and Video Portals’ (2016) 31 Human–Computer Interaction 1-58. https://doi.org/10.1080/07370024.2014.921506.
Diamond Sh S, Patton M M and others, ‘Efficiency and cost: the impact of videoconferenced hearings on bail decisions’ (2010) 100(3), Journal of criminal Law and Criminology 869-902. https://doi.org/10.2307/25766111.
Dumoulin L and C Licoppe, ‘Trial at a Distance: Videoconference Technology as a Policy Tool?’ in Proceedings of the International Conference in Public Policy 1 (5) (Milano, July, 1st - 4th 2015) 7.
Dumoulin Laurence, “parlez dans le visiophone ! La distance dans l’exercice des activités médicales et judiciaires,” Sciences sociales et santé 26, no.03 (John Libbey Eurotext2008), https://doi.org/10.3917/sss.263.0107.
Dunn M. and R. Norwick, ‘report of a survey of videoconferencing in the courts of appeals’ (Federal Judicial Center, 2006).
E J Van Der Vlis, ‘Videoconferencing in criminal proceedings. Videoconference and Remote Interpreting’ in S Braun and J L Taylor (eds), Criminal Proceedings (Guildford, University of Surrey 2011) 11.
Eagly I, ‘Remote Adjudication in Immigration’ (2015) 109(4), Northwestern University Law Review 933.
Feldman R S and Chesley R B, ‘Who is lying, who is not: An attributional analysis of the effects of nonverbal behavior on judgements of defendant believability’ (1984) 2(4), Behavioral Sciences & the Law 451–461. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2370020411
Fourment F., É Derlon et autres, “chronique de jurisprudence de la Cour européenne des droits de l'Homme en matière pénale. Les quatre saisons de la Cour : printemps-été 2008 : 1er avril 2008 – 30 septembre 2008,” revue internationale droit pénal 79, no. 03 (Érès 2008), https://doi.org/10.3917/ridp.793.0449.
Françoise Vanhamme, Kristel Beyens, “La recherche en sentencing: un survol contextualisé,” Déviance et Société 31, no. 02 (Médecine & Hygiène2007), https://doi.org/10.3917/ds.312.0199.
Fullwood C., ‘the effect of mediation on impression formation: A comparison of face-to-face and video-mediated conditions’ (2007) 38 Applied Ergonomics 270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2006.06.002.
Gibbs P, ‘Defendants on video–conveyor belt justice or a revolution in access’ (London: Transform Justice, 2017) 17.
‘Government Accountability Office, Actions Needed to Reduce Case Backlog and Address Long Standing Management and Operational Challenges’ (2017) 55.
Hatim A, M. Miloudi and others, ‘Promoting the Defence´s Role in the Preliminary Investigation, a Challenge in Maghrebian Criminal Proceedings’ (2022) 19 The Age of Human Rights Journal 47. https://doi.org/10.17561/tahrj.v19.7123.
Janin Marc, “la visioconférence à l’épreuve du procès équitable,” les cahiers de la justice 2, no.02 (Dalloz 2011), https://doi.org/10.3917/cdlj.1102.0013.
Jérôme Bossan, “la visioconférence dans le procès pénal : un outil à maitriser,” Revue de science criminelle et de droit pénal comparé 4, no. 4 (Dalloz 2011), https://doi.org/10.3917/rsc.1104.0801.
Johnson M T and E C Wiggins, ‘Videoconferencing in Criminal Proceedings: Legal and Empirical Issues and Directions for Research’ (2006) 28(2) Law & Policy Journal 217. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9930.2006.00224.x.
‘Justice under Lockdown: A survey of the criminal justice system in England & Wales between March and May 2020’ 07.
Kaminski Dan, “que font faire les technologies à la justice pénale ?” Déviance et Société 37, no.03 (Médecine & Hygiène 2013), https://doi.org/10.3917/ds.373.0255.
Kostelak R., ‘Videoconference Technology and the Confrontation Clause’ (2014) 33 Cornell Law School J.D.
“La visio-conférence dans le prétoire : présentation,” Les Cahiers de la Justice 2, no.2 (Dalloz 2011), https://doi.org/10.3917/cdlj.1102.0011.
Landstrom S, P A Granhag and others, ‘Children’s live and videotaped testimonies: How presentation mode affects observers’ perception, assessment and memory’ (2007) 12, Legal and Criminological Psychology 333-347. https://doi.org/10.1348/135532506X133607.
Lassiter G. D. and A. A. Irvine, ‘Videotaped Confessions: The Impact of Camera Point of View on Judgments of Coercion’ (1986) 16 Journal of Applied Social Psychology 268-276. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1986.tb01139.x.
Laurence Dumoulin, Christian Licoppe., “Justice et visioconférence : les audiences à distance. Genèse et institutionnalisation d'une innovation,” 2 (2009). https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00433880/, (consulté janvier 14, 2023).
Lederer F I and S H Solomon, ‘Courtroom Technology - An Introduction to the Onrushing Future’ (1997) 04. < https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/facpubs/1653 > accessed 19 May 2022
Magrath P., ‘Transparency, Data Protection and the Law Courts of the Future’ (2018) 18 Legal Information Management 70. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1472669618000166.
McKay C, ‘Video links from prison: court “appearance” within carceral space’ (2018) 14(2), Law, Culture and the Humanities 262. https://doi.org/10.1177/1743872115608350.
Mehrabian A and W Morton, ‘Decoding of inconsistent communications’ (1967) 6(1) Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 109-114. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0024532.
Mehrabian A, S R Ferris, ‘Inference of attitudes from nonverbal communication in two channels’ (1967) 31(3) Journal of Consulting Psychology 252. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0024648.
Meredith R and D Tait, ‘Courts are moving to video during coronavirus, but research shows it’s hard to get a fair trial remotely’ (The Conversation, 2020).
Milburn Philip, “Juger par écran interposé : une révolution anthropologique,” Actualité Juridique Pénal, no.05 (Dalloz 2019), https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00433880, (consulté janvier 14, 2023).
Nguyen D T and J Canny, ‘More than face-to-face: empathy effects of video framing’ In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference Human Factors in Computing Systems (April 2009) 423-432. https://doi.org/10.1145/1518701.1518770.
Orcutt H K, G S Goodman and others, ‘Detecting Deception in Children's Testimony: Factfinders' Abilities to Reach the Truth in Open Court and Closed-Circuit Trials’ (2001) 25(4), Law and Human Behavior 357-363. https://doi.org/10.1023/A: 1010603618330.
Poulin A B, ‘Criminal justice and videoconferencing technology: the remote defendant’ (2003) 78(4) Tulane Law Review 1139. < https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/tulr78&div=48&id=&page= > accessed 29 September 2022.
Présidence du Ministère Public, rapport de la présidence du ministère public sur l’exécution de la politique pénale pour l’année 2020. Rabat : Présidence du Ministère Public 2021. https://www.pmp.ma/%d8%a5%d8%b5%d8%af%d8%a7%d8%b1%d8%a7%d8%aa/, (consulté janvier 14, 2023).
Rossner M, D Tait and others, ‘The Dock on Trial: Courtroom Design and the Presumption of Innocence’ (2017) 44(3), Journal of Law and Society 317-344. https://doi.org/10.1111/jols.12033.
Rowden E and A Wallace, ‘Remote judging: the impact of video links on the image and the role of the judge’ (2018) 14(4) International Journal of Law in Context 504. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1744552318000216.
Rowden E. and A. Wallace, ‘Performing Expertise: The Design of Audiovisual Links and the Construction of the Remote Expert Witness in Court’ (2018) Social & Legal Studies 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1177/0964663918802991.
Slovák P, ‘Effect of Videoconferencing Environments on Perception of Communication’ (2007) 1(1) Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace.
Storck J and L Sproull, ‘Through a glass darkly: What do people learn in videoconferences?’ (1995) 22(2) Human Communication Research 200. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.1995.tb00366.x.
Tait D, McKimmie B M and others, ‘Towards a distributed courtroom’ (Research Report, Western Sydney University 2017) 49.
Thaxton R, ‘Injustice Telecast: The Illegal Use of Closed-Circuit Television Arraignments and Bail Bond Hearing Federal Court’ (1993) 79, Iowa Law Review 175.
Vavonese L B, E Ling and others, ‘How Video Changes the Conversation’ (2020) 04-05.
“XIXe Congrès International de Droit Pénal : Société de l’information et droit pénal,” Revue internationale de droit pénal 85, no. 3-4 (Érès 2014), https://doi.org/10.3917/ridp.853.0613.
Zorza R, ‘Video Conferencing for Access to Justice: An Evaluation of the Montana Experiment’ (Legal Services Corporation, 2007) 01-34.
Cases:
Case of Marcello Viola V. Italie App no. 45106/04 (ECtHR 5 October 2006).
Case of Sakhnovski V. Russie App no. 21272/03 (ECtHR 2 November 2010).
Case of Shulepov V. Russie App no. 15435/03 (ECtHR 26June 2008).
Case of Zagaria V. Italie App no. 58295/00 (ECtHR 5 November 2007).
How to Cite
Anouar, H. . (2023). Defence via Videoconference Technology in Morocco: A Procedural Violation or the Future of the Criminal Trial?. International Review of Law, 12(2). https://doi.org/10.29117/irl.2023.0275
Section
Articles in Arabic