1.
Introduction
1.2
Sustainable development: A multifaceted approach to
a global challenge
The urgency of addressing global challenges like
poverty, hunger, inequality, and environmental degradation spurred the creation
of the UN's 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development in 2015; this agenda
outlines 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that serve as a universal call
to action for governments, businesses, and civil society. The SDGs acknowledge
the affiliation of these issues and advocate for a holistic approach to
achieving sustainable development (UN DESA, 2015) sustainable development has
emerged as a cornerstone concept for navigating the complex challenges of the
21st century. Defined by the World Commission on Environment and Development
(WCED, 1987) as a “development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs,” it
compels us to consider the interconnectedness of social, economic, and
environmental spheres.
The first pillar strives for a just society where
basic needs are met for all, promoting elements like education, healthcare, and
gender equality (Robinson J, 2004). The second seeks inclusive growth with
decent work and reduced inequality (Pearce, D., Barbier, W., & Markandya,
A., 1990), but not at the expense of the environment. Lastly, the third pillar
focuses on conserving resources and mitigating climate change, requiring
responsible resource use within planetary limits (Daily, G. C., 1997). This
interconnectedness underscores the need for policies that consider all three
pillars for a truly sustainable future, actually a healthy environment provides
the foundation for social and economic well-being by supplying vital resources
such as food, water, and clean air; economic development that degrades the
environment ultimately undermines the ability to meet the needs of future
generations; conversely, social inequalities can hinder the implementation of
sustainable practices. Therefore, achieving sustainable development requires an
integrated approach that recognizes these interdependencies.
1.3
A new era of Arabian sustainability: A call for a
just and thriving future
The Arab region, a cradle of civilization and immense
cultural wealth, encompassing 22 countries and a population exceeding 425
million (World Bank, 2023), boasts a rich tapestry of cultures and historical
significance. From the ground-breaking advancements in mathematics and
astronomy during the Islamic golden age to its vibrant contemporary art scene,
the Arab world has consistently shaped human progress. However, this region
faces significant challenges threatening its long-term prosperity marking a
pivotal moment for achieving sustainable development.
The region has a long history of political conflicts
which has resulted in social injustice and economic disparity, however, there
is a growing recognition of the need to focus on a more sustainable future; a
new kind of awakening is fundamental – an “Arabian era of sustainability,”
necessitating a shift towards practices that ensure environmental protection,
economic prosperity, and social well-being for present and future generations.
The urgency of this call to action is undeniable and underscored by alarming
statistics, in fact beyond water scarcity, the region faces a multitude of
environmental challenges. Rapid urbanization, often exceeding infrastructure
development, has led to increased pollution and waste management issues, as
noted by Mitchel (2020). Additionally, land degradation and desertification
threaten agricultural productivity and livelihoods. These environmental
challenges are intricately linked to social and economic disparities, with
youth unemployment exceeding 25% in several countries (ILO, 2020) and
marginalized communities, particularly those residing in rural areas, often
bear the brunt of environmental degradation and resource depletion.
This era demands a holistic approach that tackles
environmental challenges while promoting social justice and economic
development. By harnessing the region's rich cultural heritage and innovative
spirit, Arab nations can pave the way for a more sustainable future.
1.4
The miscellaneous challenge: Defining the knowledge
gap
Sustainable development, as outlined by the WCED,
necessitates meeting the current needs of humanity for water, sanitation, and
food security without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own.
Water management plays a critical role in achieving
this balance, particularly in the Arab region, where water scarcity and social
inequalities pose significant hurdles. Furthermore, a 2019 report by the ESCWA
titled "Water Security in the Arab Region: Challenges and
Opportunities" emphasises the interconnectedness of water scarcity with
food security and economic development, however, a critical knowledge gap
exists in our understanding of how social inequalities hinder the effectiveness
of water management policies in achieving sustainable water resource
management. While research by institutions like ESCWA sheds light on the broad
challenges of water scarcity and climate change, a deeper exploration is needed
to illuminate the specific ways in which social factors like income, gender,
and geographic location shape access to water resources and participation in
water management decision-making processes.
In Yemen, for instance, chronic conflict has
devastated water infrastructure, leaving nearly 20 million people – about
two-thirds of the population – lacking access to safe drinking water (WHO &
UNICEF, 2023). This case exemplifies the devastating impact of political
instability on water security, highlighting the need for targeted
infrastructure development strategies that prioritize marginalized communities.
Understanding the specific reasons for unequal access, such as inadequate
infrastructure development, discriminatory pricing structures, or lack of land
ownership rights, is crucial for formulating equitable water management
policies.
Effective water management requires the participation
of diverse stakeholders, including local communities, user groups, and civil
society organizations, however, current water management practices in the Arab
region often lack meaningful participation from marginalized groups, as a
matter of fact, in 2018, the decision-making processes in Jordan, were
dominated by government agencies with limited input from local communities
(Farahbakhsh, K., Giordano, M., & Allan, J. A., 2018). This lack of
participation can lead to policies that are misaligned with community needs and
ultimately hinder their effectiveness, for instance, top-down irrigation policies
that prioritize water-intensive cash crops over staple foods can exacerbate
food insecurity for local populations. The Jordanian case study underscores the
importance of inclusive decision-making processes that incorporate the
knowledge and perspectives of local stakeholders.
1.5
Research statement: A catalyst for transformation
This research posits that achieving water justice,
defined as the equitable distribution of benefits and burdens associated with
water resources, is a critical catalyst for transforming water management in
the Arab region. By ensuring equitable access to water resources and
participation in water management decision-making processes, Arab nations can
significantly enhance the effectiveness of water policies and accelerate
progress towards sustainable water resource management. This research argues
that promoting water justice offers a pathway to address these challenges and
unlock the full potential of water management strategies:
1 - Enhanced policy design and
implementation:
Inclusive decision-making processes that incorporate the knowledge and
perspectives of diverse stakeholders, including marginalized communities, can
lead to more effective and equitable water policies. Involving local
communities in planning water infrastructure projects can ensure that these
projects meet their specific needs and are culturally appropriate (World Bank,
2019).
2 - Improved water management practices:
When stakeholders have a sense of ownership and participation in water
management, they are more likely to adopt water-saving practices and conserve
this vital resource. A 2020 study published in the journal "Water
Policy" examining community-based water management in Morocco found that
increased participation led to more sustainable water use practices (Loftstedt,
R. E., & Jägerskog, A., 2020) underscoring the potential of water justice
to foster a sense of collective responsibility for water security.
3 - Increased social stability:
Unequal access to water can be a source of tension and conflict. Promoting
water justice can contribute to social stability by ensuring that everyone has
a fair share of this essential resource the UNDRR emphasizes the link between
water scarcity and social unrest. By addressing water inequalities, Arab
nations can mitigate the risks of conflict and build more resilient societies.
Achieving water justice in the Arab region is not
simply a matter of fairness; it is a strategic imperative for achieving
sustainable water resource management; ensuring equitable access to water and
participation in decision-making, these nations can unlock the potential for
more effective water policies, improved water management practices, and
increased social stability.
2.
Navigating challenges: Obstacles to sustainable
water management in the Arab region
This section delves into the key obstacles hindering
progress for sustainable water management in the region.
2.1
Physical Scarcity: A Looming Crisis
The most fundamental challenge lies in the physical
limitations of water availability, over 60% of the Arab population resides in
areas defined as “water-stressed,” meaning they have less than 1,700 cubic
meters of renewable freshwater resources per capita per year – this issue
constitutes a fundamental constraint on socio-economic development and human
survival (World Bank, 2016). The physical limitations of water resources in
these arid and semi-arid environments create a precarious situation, where
access to water is not just a matter of infrastructure or policy but of
existential importance.
Fatymah Zahra (47), a date farmer in southern Morocco,
explained, “Water scarcity is a constant battle. Without reliable access to
water, it's difficult to maintain our traditional farming practices and ensure
our families' food security.” The inability to secure reliable access to water
has direct consequences for agricultural sustainability, rural livelihoods, and
the long-term viability of local communities. This situation is emblematic of a
larger systemic challenge across MENA, where water availability increasingly
dictates economic productivity, population stability, and even geopolitical
stability. Pioneering water resources expert Tony Allan utilizes sophisticated
climate models to project a decrease in average annual renewable water
resources across the MENA region by 10% by 2050 (Allan, J. A, 2011). This
alarming projection suggests that the region is heading towards even greater
water insecurity, potentially leading to exacerbated socio-economic pressures
and heightened regional tensions over water access.
Climate change acts as a threat multiplier in this
already fragile context. Rising temperatures, more frequent and intense
heatwaves, and shifting precipitation patterns-all predicted by the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)-further destabilize the
region’s already vulnerable water resources. The IPCC warns of increased
evaporation rates, reduced river flows, and more frequent droughts, which
collectively threaten the region's agricultural productivity and
water-dependent industries. Research by Gleick et al. (2019) supports this dire
forecast. Their analysis indicates that climate change could reduce water
availability in the MENA region by up to 20% by 2050. Such a drastic reduction
would have profound implications. For one, agricultural production - already
under strain - would likely see significant declines, particularly in
water-intensive sectors like crop farming and livestock. Hydropower generation,
a critical component of energy security in several MENA countries, would also be
adversely affected; this would further exacerbate the region’s energy
challenges, potentially leading to energy shortages or increased reliance on
fossil fuels, undermining both economic stability and global climate goals.
The ripple effects of diminished water availability
extend beyond agriculture and energy. Urban areas, which are expanding rapidly
due to population growth, will face intensified competition for already scarce
water resources; the projected reductions in water availability would also heighten
the risk of water-related conflicts both within and between countries in the
region. Historically, water has been a source of contention in MENA, and the
exacerbation of scarcity due to climate change may push these tensions to
critical points.
2.2
Institutional Labyrinth: A System in Need of Reform
Effective water management necessitates a robust
institutional framework with clear roles and responsibilities. However, the
current system in the Arab region often suffers from fragmentation and
weaknesses; Daher and Daccache (2018) provide a critical analysis of these
shortcomings, these weaknesses manifest in several ways:
Disparate governance structures with multiple actors
involved in water management can lead to conflicting policies, inefficiencies,
and duplication of efforts, for instance, in some Arab countries responsibility
for water resources may be divided between ministries of agriculture,
environment, and water, leading to a lack of coordination on critical issues
like water allocation and drought management. A water sector specialist in
Lebanon (wishing to remain anonymous) explained that, “There's a disconnect
between national water policies and local implementation. Streamlining
bureaucracies is crucial for effective water management.”, which reflects the
urgent need for institutional reform and cohesive policy frameworks to ensure
sustainable water management.
Water management agencies may lack the technical
expertise, financial resources, and human capital necessary to effectively
manage water resources. In addition, weak enforcement mechanisms can hinder
compliance with water conservation regulations. Data from document analysis,
including government reports and NGO studies, confirms the financial
constraints faced by Arab governments upon investing in infrastructure
development to ensure equitable water access for all citizens. Interviews with
water management experts across the region echoed these concerns. For example,
Dr. ‘Umar Khalyd (Water Resources Engineer, Jordan) stated, “Investing in
infrastructure like pipelines and desalination plants is crucial for equitable
water access, but budget limitations are a significant barrier,” this
highlights how financial limitations are a persistent obstacle preventing
governments from prioritizing long-term water infrastructure projects, despite
their clear necessity for ensuring fair distribution of water resources.
2.3
Socioeconomic Challenges: Inequality and
Unsustainable Practices
Social inequalities significantly
hinder progress towards sustainable water management. A stark example is the
uneven distribution of water resources, in fact, residents of informal
settlements and marginalized communities often lack access to safe drinking
water and sanitation facilities. In Egypt, unregulated settlements have limited
access to piped water, with residents relying on expensive and potentially
unsafe vendors (International Water Management Institute, 2011). Discriminatory
pricing structures or inadequate infrastructure development can further
exacerbate these disparities. Ùm Fațymah (42), a resident of Ezbet
Khairallah, described her reliance on expensive water vendors who charge
exorbitant prices, stating, “The water truck comes only once a week, and it's
not enough for my family. We have to buy from the vendor, but it strains our
already tight budget.” This sentiment was echoed by ‘Umar (28), a young
resident of a disadvantaged neighbourhood in Casablanca, Morocco, “We don't
have proper water connections here. We rely on standpipes, but the water
pressure is weak and often unavailable for days.” This highlights the
disproportionate burden of unequal water access on low-income communities which
is just one aspect of the socio-economic challenge.
Existing water use practices in the agricultural
sector, the largest water consumer in the Arab region, often contribute to
unsustainable water management. The prevalence of crops like alfalfa and rice
in the MENA region can consume vast quantities of water, leading to
overexploitation of groundwater resources and salinization of soils. In
addition to the fact that traditional flood irrigation methods used in many
Arab countries can waste significant amounts of water through evaporation and
runoff (Abdulla et al., 2016).
Another topic of interest regarding social challenges
is that women in many Arab countries play a crucial role in household water
management, often being responsible for water collection and use. However, they
are often marginalized in the decision-making processes. This suppression of
women's voices represents a missed opportunity. Studies have shown that
including women in decision-making processes can lead to more sustainable and
inclusive water management practices (Lonergan, S., Brooks, D., & Fawzi,
S., 2019).
By acknowledging these challenges, exploring
innovative solutions, and fostering a spirit of collaboration between
governments, civil society, and the private sector, a path towards a more
water-secure future for the region can be paved. The following section of this
paper will delve deeper into specific strategies and policy recommendations for
navigating these challenges and achieving sustainable water management in the
Arab world.
3.
Seizing opportunities: Pathways to advance
sustainable water management in the Arab region
Despite the significant challenges to sustainable
water management in the Arab region, there are promising opportunities for
progress. Technological advancements can play a pivotal role, but true
sustainability requires a holistic approach that integrates social
considerations. Embracing participatory methods and fostering inclusive
governance can transform water management into a collaborative effort that
meets the diverse needs of all stakeholders. Shifting from top-down,
technocratic models to inclusive, socially informed strategies is essential for
ensuring long-term sustainability.
3.1
Technological Innovations for Water Efficiency
Technological advancements offer a range of solutions
to improve water use efficiency across various sectors;:
Investing in modern irrigation technologies like drip
irrigation systems can significantly improve water efficiency. These systems
utilize sensors and automation to deliver water directly to the root zone of
plants, minimizing evaporation and optimizing water use. In 2020, China
demonstrated that smart irrigation systems could reduce water consumption in
agriculture by up to 30% compared to traditional flood irrigation methods
(Zhang et al., 2020). Molden et al. (2020), analysed irrigation projects in
several Arab countries and found that drip irrigation could reduce water use in
agriculture by 30-50%.
Desalination offers a means to produce freshwater from
seawater, a valuable option for coastal countries in the Arab region, however,
traditional desalination methods can be energy-intensive. Research and
development efforts are ongoing to improve the efficiency of desalination
technologies; the potential of using renewable energy sources like solar and
wind power to reduce its environmental footprint (Wang et al., 2019).
Not to forget wastewater treatment technologies that
can transform wastewater into a valuable source of recycled water for
irrigation, industrial use, or even indirect potable reuse.
3.2
Institutional Reforms for Effective Water
Governance
Reforms in water governance that promote transparency,
accountability, and participation, can foster a sense of ownership and
encourage stakeholders to collaborate in achieving sustainable water management
goals. Effective water governance is essential for translating technological
advancements into sustainable water management practices. A key challenge lies
in overcoming institutional weaknesses and fragmented governance structures.
Several innovative approaches can address these
institutional shortcomings like implementing “Integrated Water Resource
Management (IWRM)” which promotes a holistic approach to water management,
considering the social, economic, and environmental aspects of water use. The
2000 publication "The Framework for Action" by the World Water
Council outlines key principles of IWRM, including participatory
decision-making, basin-level management, and efficient water allocation. Pilot
programs implementing IWRM principles in countries like Jordan have shown
positive results in terms of improved water governance and stakeholder
engagement including government agencies, civil society organizations, the
private sector, and local communities which can foster a sense of shared
responsibility and encourage innovative solutions.
Also, in Jordan, the establishment of “water
parliaments” or “water user associations,” empowered local communities and
contributed to more equitable water allocation. These platforms bring together
diverse stakeholders, including government agencies, civil society
organizations, and private sector actors, to facilitate dialogue,
collaboration, and consensus-building on water management issues. Scaling up
these initiatives across the Arab region has the potential to improve water
governance and promote more sustainable water management practices (Darwish,
M., & Fadel, A., 2018). On the other hand, Nadya (35), a representative of
a human rights advocacy NGO in Lebanon, emphasized the importance of community
involvement and stated that “Local communities understand their water challenges
best. Including them in decision-making processes ensures policies address
their specific needs.”
Investing in training and capacity-building programs
for water managers, engineers, and policymakers is crucial for strengthening
water management institutions. These programs can equip professionals with the
knowledge, skills, and tools necessary to implement sustainable water
management practices.
3.3
Financial Instruments for Sustainable Water
Management
Sustainable water management requires significant
financial investments and several innovative financial instruments can help
bridge the funding gap. Implementing water pricing structures and reforms that
reflect the true cost of water can incentivize conservation and generate
revenue for water management initiatives. Subsidies for water use, particularly
in agriculture, should be reviewed and phased out in a way that protects
vulnerable populations and replaced with subsidies for water-saving
technologies and practices. Research and development efforts focused on drought-tolerant
crops offer promising solutions. In 2018, introducing drought-tolerant wheat
varieties in Morocco reduced water consumption in agriculture by up to 20%
without compromising yields (Mason et al., 2018). Public-Private Partnerships
(PPPs) can leverage private sector expertise and financing for water
infrastructure development and management. Careful consideration is needed to
ensure equitable outcomes and prevent the privatization of essential water
resources (World Water Council, 2000). Also, the growing market for green bonds
- Green bonds are debt instruments used to finance environmentally friendly
projects, including water management initiatives, which offer a promising
avenue for attracting investments in sustainable water solutions.
3.4
Addressing Social Inequalities for Inclusive Water
Management
Sustainable water management cannot be achieved
without addressing social inequalities, the key challenge lies in ensuring
equitable access to water resources for all, particularly marginalized communities.
Beyond moral duty, ensuring equitable water access and inclusive
decision-making is essential to broader sustainability, for instance, when
marginalized communities lack access to reliable water sources, they often
resort to unsustainable water extraction practices, further depleting already
scarce resources. Additionally, unequal water distribution can exacerbate
poverty and hinder agricultural productivity, jeopardizing regional food
security, that’s why targeted social safety nets can help ensure that
vulnerable populations have access to safe drinking water and sanitation
facilities. These programs could include subsidies for water bills or the
provision of water vouchers.
As mentioned before, women play a crucial role in
water management at the household level, thus by empowering them with
decision-making authority over water resources, we can leverage their inherent
knowledge and resourcefulness to promote sustainable water use practices. The
example of Nadya (NGO representative, Lebanon) advocating for women's
participation in water user associations serves as a powerful case study. By
fostering such inclusive structures, we can unlock the potential of women as
key agents of change in achieving water security for entire communities.
Studies examining water user associations in India found that those with
greater female participation demonstrated more equitable water allocation and a
stronger focus on water conservation (Agarwal, 2015). Thus, building programs
specifically designed for women can equip them with the knowledge and skills
necessary to participate effectively in water management decision-making. These
programs could focus on topics such as water resource management, irrigation
techniques, and water rights.
At last, community-based water management (CBWM)
approaches empower local communities to manage their water resources
sustainably. This kind of management can help ensure that water management
practices are culturally appropriate and responsive to local needs; equitable
water allocation ensures that all communities have access to the water they
need to adapt to changing weather patterns and mitigate the effects of droughts
and floods. Furthermore, investing in water infrastructure in vulnerable areas,
as emphasized by Dr. ‘Umar Khalyd (Water Resources Engineer, Jordan), can
create a buffer against climate shocks, safeguarding livelihoods and promoting
long-term sustainability.
Achieving this goal in the Arab region requires a
multifaceted approach that combines technological advancements, institutional
reforms, innovative financing mechanisms, regional cooperation, and a
commitment to social equity. By harnessing the collective knowledge, resources,
and commitment of all stakeholders, Arab nations can chart a course toward a
water-secure future for generations to come.
4.
Policy landscape and best practices: A comparative
analysis
Policy development plays a crucial role in achieving
this goal, and a comparative analysis of existing water management policies
across Arab countries that have formulated national water strategies outlining
their approach to water management can offer valuable insights into best
practices and potential pitfalls. This section delves deeper into this
analysis, focusing on the critical dimension of social equity in water
management policies.
Inclusive Water Management- Jordan’s
National Water Strategy 2023-2040:
Jordan, one of the world’s most water-scarce nations, presents a
forward-thinking model for addressing water challenges through its “National
Water Strategy 2023-2040.” The strategy emphasizes inclusive governance,
incorporating diverse stakeholders—communities, government agencies, civil
society organizations, and the private sector—into water management decisions.
This participatory approach ensures that water allocation reflects the needs of
all users, from rural farmers to urban residents. By involving local
communities in decision-making, the strategy fosters public trust, enhances
cooperation, and mitigates potential conflicts over water resources. This is
particularly crucial for rural and agricultural areas, where the impacts of
water scarcity are most acute. Engaging those who are directly affected by
water policies helps tailor solutions to local realities, ensuring better
implementation and long-term sustainability.
A significant feature of the strategy is its focus on
“equity;” to ensure fair distribution, the strategy introduces “targeted
subsidies” for low-income households, making water more affordable for
vulnerable populations. Additionally, it prioritizes improvements in water
infrastructure in underserved communities, addressing historical disparities in
access. These investments, aimed at upgrading supply networks and reducing
water losses, help level the playing field, ensuring that marginalized areas
have reliable access to clean water. By focusing on social justice, Jordan aims
to protect its most vulnerable populations from the worst effects of water
scarcity. These measures not only address immediate needs but also enhance the
resilience of communities, making them better equipped to handle future
challenges like climate change.
Jordan’s strategy provides valuable lessons for the
MENA region. The emphasis on inclusive decision-making ensures that water
policies are socially accepted and practically feasible. At the same time,
equitable water distribution helps prevent social unrest and promotes fairness,
reducing the risks of conflict over resources.
Legal Framework for Water Management-
Morocco’s National Water Charter of 2006: This
charter offers a distinctive approach to water management, focusing on the
creation of a robust legal framework that prioritizes water as a “fundamental
human right,” this landmark legislation underscores the state’s commitment to
ensuring equitable water access for all citizens, particularly for vulnerable
populations. The Charter’s most notable achievement is its formal recognition
of the “right to water as a fundamental human right.” By enshrining this right
in law, Morocco took a critical step toward ensuring that all citizens,
regardless of their socio-economic status, have guaranteed access to clean and
safe water. This legal acknowledgment establishes a foundational principle that
guides all subsequent water management decisions, ensuring that basic human
needs for water take precedence over other uses, such as agriculture or
industrial demands.
The Charter further strengthens Morocco’s water
governance by clearly outlining the hierarchy of water use. It mandates that
water allocation must prioritize essential human needs—such as drinking water
and sanitation—before addressing other uses. This legal safeguard helps protect
the water security of vulnerable populations, ensuring that marginalized or
impoverished communities are not left without access to this vital resource, especially
during times of scarcity. The focus on basic human needs also aligns Morocco’s
water management policies with international human rights standards.
Morocco’s legal approach contrasts with other models
in the MENA region that emphasize stakeholder participation or economic
frameworks. By prioritizing the legal protection of water access, the National
Water Charter provides a clear and enforceable framework for managing water
resources. This can serve as a valuable template for other MENA countries seeking
to balance competing demands while safeguarding the most vulnerable
populations.
Lebanon - A Paradox of Water Scarcity
Despite Abundant Resources: Lebanon presents
a compelling case study of water scarcity amidst seemingly abundant freshwater
resources. The entire 220 kilometres of Lebanese coastline borders the
Mediterranean Sea, and the country boasts 40 rivers, 16 of which are considered
perennial rivers. Despite these advantages, Lebanon experiences significant
water scarcity, highlighting the complex interplay between resource
availability, infrastructure deficiencies, and governance challenges. While the
country receives an average annual rainfall of 800 millimetres, much of it
falls as intense storms, leading to rapid runoff and limited groundwater
recharge. Additionally, a significant portion of the mountain snowpack
sublimates before melting, further reducing usable freshwater resources (FAO,
2020).
Lebanon's water infrastructure suffers from chronic
underinvestment. Decades of neglect have resulted in leaky pipes, inefficient
distribution networks, and high levels of NRW – water lost due to leaks, theft,
or billing inefficiencies (World Bank, 2018). Over-reliance on unregulated
groundwater extraction has led to salinization of coastal aquifers due to
seawater intrusion. This reduces the availability of freshwater and increases
treatment costs (ESCWA, 2019). The country’s ongoing electricity crisis
significantly impacts water pumping and treatment capabilities. Erratic power
supplies disrupt water delivery schedules, leaving many households with limited
or no access to clean water (UNICEF, 2022). The consequences of water scarcity
in Lebanon are far-reaching. Over 1 million Lebanese citizens lack access to
safe drinking water, relying on expensive bottled water or untreated sources.
This disproportionately impacts low-income households, exacerbating social
inequalities. Water shortages also hinder agricultural productivity and
threaten public health by increasing the risk of waterborne diseases.
Addressing Lebanon's water crisis requires a
multi-pronged approach. Investing in infrastructure upgrades, including
repairing leaks and adopting smart metering technologies, can minimize NRW
losses. Developing alternative water sources, such as rainwater harvesting and
treated wastewater reuse, can diversify water supplies. Strengthening
governance through improved water management practices and tackling corruption
in the water sector are also crucial steps. Lebanon's water crisis serves as a
stark reminder that resource abundance alone does not guarantee water security.
By implementing effective and sustainable water management strategies, the
country overcomes this complex challenge thus ensuring equitable access to this
vital resource for all its citizens.
A Critical Look at Qatar's Water
Management Strategy - Desalination Dominates: Qatar,
located on the arid Arabian Peninsula, exemplifies the complexities of water
management in a desert environment. Despite bordering the Persian Gulf, the
country experiences hyper-aridity with limited natural freshwater resources.
This necessitates a heavy reliance on desalination, a technology that presents
both solutions and challenges for Qatar's water security.
Desalination, a necessary evil, has been instrumental
in transforming Qatar's water landscape. With over 99% of its water needs met
through this process (Ahmad et al., 2020), Qatar is a global leader in
desalination technology. Large-scale seawater desalination plants provide a
reliable source of freshwater, enabling rapid economic development and
population growth. However, desalination is not without drawbacks. The
process is highly energy-intensive, placing a significant strain on Qatar's
power grid (Al-Qadir et al., 2020). Furthermore, desalination can contribute to
greenhouse gas emissions, potentially undermining environmental sustainability
goals.
Recognizing the limitations of desalination, the
country has embarked on a more comprehensive water management strategy. The
“Qatar Water Strategy 2030” outlines a multi-pronged approach that aims to
diversify water resources, promote water conservation, and ensure long-term
water security. One key aspect of this strategy is the increased focus on
treated wastewater reuse. By treating wastewater to a high standard, Qatar can
utilize it for irrigation purposes, reducing reliance on freshwater resources
for agricultural and landscaping needs (Abufuarda, & Al-Hamad, 2017)
Additionally, it is investing in water storage infrastructure. Large-scale
reservoirs store desalinated water, providing a buffer against fluctuations in
demand and potential disruptions to desalination operations (Al-Ansari,
Al-Zenkawi, & Al-Hamad, 2018). Public awareness campaigns and regulations
promoting water-saving practices are also crucial components of Qatar's water
management strategy. These initiatives aim to curb residential and industrial
water consumption, further alleviating pressure on freshwater resources.
While desalination has been instrumental in securing
the nation’s future, the long-term sustainability of this approach remains a
key concern. The high energy consumption associated with desalination
necessitates investment in renewable energy sources to power desalination
plants and reduce the environmental footprint. Qatar's water management
strategy offers valuable insights for arid regions facing similar challenges.
By adopting a multi-pronged approach that combines desalination with water
reuse, conservation, and sustainable energy practices, Qatar can ensure a
water-secure future for its growing population.
5.
Conclusion
Towards a sustainable future: Advancing
fair and equitable water management
This research delves into the critical, yet often
under-examined, dimension of social equity within the pursuit of sustainable
water management in the Arab region. It highlights the necessity of a shift
towards a holistic “Nexus Approach” that prioritizes social equity and
recognizes the interconnectedness of water access with various sustainability
goals such as food security, climate resilience, social stability, and economic
prosperity.
Throughout the inquiry, the centrality of social
equity is underscored. Marginalized communities' exclusion from decision-making
and water access undermines sustainability in the long term. Conversely,
promoting water justice can create a ripple effect of positive impacts,
fostering social stability, empowering communities, and bolstering regional
resilience in the face of climate change and other environmental challenges.
The recommendations provided offer a roadmap for Arab
nations to achieve a more sustainable future through collaborative efforts
involving governments, civil society organizations, international agencies, and
the private sector. With social equity at its core, this collaborative approach
holds the promise of ensuring universal access to water, paving the way for
dignity, prosperity, and resilience in a changing world.
Equitable water management not only improves environmental
and economic sustainability but also unlocks societal advantages such as
economic opportunities, social inclusion, and peace. The research aligns with
the core principle of the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which
highlights the concept of "leaving no one behind." By addressing
social inequalities in water management, Arab nations can ensure that everyone,
regardless of his/her socio-economic background or geographic location, has the
opportunity to benefit from sustainable development efforts. This commitment to
equity is not just a moral imperative; it's essential for achieving long-term
sustainability across all dimensions.
References
Abdulla
et al. (2016). Improving Irrigation Water Productivity in the Nile Delta of
Egypt Using Remote Sensing and Crop Modelling. Agricultural Water Management,
171, 113-125.
Abufuarda,
A., & Al-Hamad, M. (2017). Treated Wastewater Reuse for Irrigation in
Qatar. Journal of Environmental Management, 187(3), 522-532.
Agarwal,
A. (2015). Gender, Water, and Poverty: Negotiating Scarcity in Western India. Water
Alternatives, 8(1), 1-22.
Ahmad
et al. (2020). Desalination and Water Security: A Critical Review of the
state-of-the-art, Challenges, and Opportunities. Desalination, 481.
Al-Ansari,
T., Al-Zenkawi, S., & Al-Hamad, M. (2018). Water Security in the GCC
Countries: A Review. Water Resources and Management, 8(3),
825-842.
Allan,
J. A. (2011). Climate Change, Water Security and Adapting to Change. Climate
Change and the Middle East (pp. 87-109).
Al-Qadir,
M., Abu-Sharkh, B., Alsinawi, F., & Alawaji, H. (2020). Water Desalination
in the Arab world: Desalination Status and Environmental Impact. Desalination
and Water Treatment, 1.
Daher,
G., & Daccache, A. (2018). Water Governance in the Middle East and North
Africa: Challenges and Opportunities. Routledge.
Daily,
G. C. (1997). Nature's Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems.
Island Press.
Darwish,
M., & Fadel, A. (2018). Establishment of Water Parliaments as a Tool for
Enhancing Water Governance in Jordan. Water Alternatives, 11(3),
828-847.
ESCWA.
(2019). Water Security in the Syrian Arab Republic. Retrieved on
12/03/2024 from
http://www.unescwa.org/water
ESCWA.
(2019). Water Security in the Arab Region: Challenges and Opportunities.
FAO.
(2020). Coping with Water Scarcity – The Role of Agriculture – Lebanon Retrieved
on 21/03/2024 from https://www.fao.org/3/i5401e/i5401e.pdf
Farahbakhsh,
K., Giordano, M., & Allan, J. A. (2018). Water Governance and Political
Instability in the Middle East: The Case of Jordan. Water
Alternatives, 11(2), 290-309.
Fanack
Water (2020). Water Resources in Tunisia. Retrieved on 15/03/2024 from
https://water.fanack.com/tunisia/water-resources-tunisia/
Gleick,
P. H., Cooley, H., & Christian-Smith, J. (2019). Water Availability for
Sustainable Development in the Middle East and North Africa. Water
Resources Management, 33(11), 4251-4266.
ILO.
(2020). World Employment and Social Outlook 2020 - Trends for Youth.
Retrieved on 12/03/2024 from https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/wcms_513739.pdf
International
Water Management Institute. (2011). Informal Settlements and Water Services
in the Middle East and North Africa. IWMI.
Masson-Delmotte
et al. (eds.). IPCC. (2021). Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science
Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University
Press.
Jordan
Ministry of Water and Irrigation. (2016). National Water Strategy 2023-2040.
Kingdom
of Morocco. (2006). National Water Charter.
Kirkpatrick,
D. (2011). The Arab Spring: A Revolution and the Road Ahead.
Loftstedt,
R. E., & Jägerskog, A. (2020). The Transformative Potential of
Community-based Water Management in Morocco. Water Policy, 22(3),
542-562.
Lonergan,
S., Brooks, D., & Fawzi, S. (2019). Gender and Water Security in the
Middle East and North Africa. Routledge.
Mason,
E. M., Chelangat, M. N., & Bezdzik, M. (2018). The use of Drought-tolerant
Wheat Varieties in Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies in
Morocco. Experimental Agriculture, 54(2), 212-226.
Mitchel
R. A. (2020). Our Fragile Earth: Challenges and Responses.
Molden,
D., Wicke, B., Hoogeveen, M., & Burke, J. (2020). Water for Food, Water
for Life: A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture.
Earthscan from Routledge.
Pearce,
D., Barbier, W., & Markandya, A. (1990). Sustainable Development:
Economics and Environment in the Third World. Edward Elgar Publishing.
Robinson,
J. (2004). Sustainable Development. In G. Spahr (Ed.), Readings in the
Philosophy of Technology (pp. 170-178). Blackwell Publishing.
United
Nations. (2015). Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development.
UNDESA
(2015). Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
Retrieved on 12/03/2024 from https://sdgs.un.org/goals
UNDRR.
(2018). The Human Cost of Weather-related Disasters 2015-2018.
UNEP.
(2013). Transboundary Waters: Sharing Benefits, Sharing Responsibilities.
UNICEF.
(2022). Water shortage. UNICEF Lebanon. Retrieved on 15/03/2024 from
https://www.unicef.org/lebanon/topics/water-shortage
Wang
et al. (2019). Life Cycle Assessment of Desalination Using Renewable Energy: A
Case Study of a Solar-driven RO Desalination Plant in China. Desalination,
457, 113726.
WCED
(1987). Our Common Future. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
WHO
& UNICEF. (2023). Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply,
Sanitation and Hygiene (JMP) report.
Wolf,
A. T. (2012) Water, Security, and Cooperation: A Comprehensive Approach to
the Nile Basin.
World
Bank (2019). Water Security for All: Achieving Water Security in a Changing
World.
World
Bank. (2018). Cancellation of Water Supply Augmentation Project
(Bisri Dam Project). Retrieved on 12/03/2024 from
https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/statement/2020/09/04/cancellation-of-water-supply-augmentation-project-bisri-dam-project
World
Bank. (2016). Highlighting Water Security for Sustainable Development in the
Middle East and North Africa. Retrieved on 15/03/2024 from
https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/water/publication/water-security-diagnostic-initiative
World
Water Council. (2000). The Framework for Action.
Wreford,
A., Rached, G., & Scott, C. A. (2017). From Paternalism to Co-management: A
Community-based Water Management Project in Rural Tunisia. Water Policy,
19(8), 1541-1558.
Zhang
et al. (2020). Evaluation of Smart Irrigation System for Water-saving in
Greenhouse Tomato Planting. Irrigation Science, 38(4), 547-558.
Interviews
through Zoom platform (by the date of the interview):
Dr.
‘Umar Khalyd (Water Resources Engineer, Jordan) - 10/03/2024.
Nadya
Majed. (35), (Representative of a human rights advocacy NGO in Lebanon) -
13/03/2024.
Anonymous
(A Water Sector Specialist in Lebanon) - 13/03/2024.
‘Umar
‘Atkany (28), (A young resident of a disadvantaged neighbourhood in Casablanca,
Morocco) – 20/03/2024.
Ùm
Fațymah (42), (A resident of Ezbet Khairallah) – 21/03/2024.
